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Copyright^?.. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSITS 




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NATIONAL LANGUAGE SERIES 



PEACTICAL 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



BY 

DAVID SINCLAIR BURLESON 



NATIONAL BOOK COMPANY 

CHATTANOOGA, TENN. CHICAGO, ILL. 

DALLAS, TEXAS 






Copyrighted 1919 

BY 

David Sinclair Burleson 



Composition by 

'4H & %" 1&vw*tttinv Companp 

Chicago 



APR II I9I9©CU515191 



y^l 



PREFACE 

The purpose of this book is to discuss the elements of 

^English grammar in a clear and simple way, with the end in 

view of promoting the development of better language habits 

in the pupil. Grammar as a science is subordinated herein 

to grammar in its practical aspects. 

In method and treatment the book is adapted to the gram- 
mar grades, but it presupposes an acquaintance with the 
rudiments of the subject as acquired in connection with lan- 
guage lessons. The formal study of grammar, the author 
believes, should not begin before the seventh year. 

The book consists of two main divisions. The aim of 
Part I is to acquaint the pupil with the sentence in its various 
relations. Part II deals with the parts of speech in detail. 

The inductive and laboratory methods are employed. 
The order of development usually followed is, to begin with 
an apt and familiar example that produces a definite image 
or concept, with the accompanying comment or generaliza- 
tion reduced to the simplest and most direct terms; then to 
follow the development, while it is still fresh, with exercises 
for the application of the rule or principle involved, so that 
the pupil may learn by the natural process of doing. 

Care has been taken, that, as far as possible, illustrative 
and exercise matter shall be pleasing and inspiring, concrete 
rather than abstract, and of a practical nature. Formal 
exercises in classification are employed only so far as they 
are deemed essential to the understanding of important laws 
and principles. At the end of each chapter are exercises in 
review of all information of practical importance presented 
in the chapter. There is also a summary for review or refer- 
ence. 

iii 



iv PREFACE 

; In adopting a system of nomenclature, the aim has been 
to select such terms as would be appropriate, and, at the 
same time, as familiar as possible. The author is in full 
sympathy with the efforts of the National Educational Asso- 
ciation to secure a uniform terminology in grammar, and for 
that reason has adopted the recommendations of "The Joint 
Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature/ ' with reserva- 
tions only in the case of terms now so generally employed 
as to give them preference over less familiar terms. Wher- 
ever a reservation has been made, however, the term recom- 
mended by the Joint Committee has been given in a foot-note, 
so that it may be used if preferred. 

A simple system of diagrams is presented for convenience 
in the preparation of written work. The occasional graph- 
ing of sentence relations may also prove a helpful device in 
stimulating the interest of the class and leading to a better 
understanding of obscure constructions. Such a device, how- 
ever, is only an incident and is not to be employed to the 
extent of losing sight of the end of grammar through an undue 
interest in its gymnastics. 

In offering this text-book to the public, the author is aware 
of the fact that the teaching of formal grammar has often 
been followed by such meager results that some educators 
have been led to the extreme conclusion that this subject 
should be eliminated from the curriculum. Now that the 
value of scientific knowledge is generally admitted, it must 
be believed that the importance of understanding the laws 
of our language cannot be denied, and that the reason the 
science of grammar has failed to produce more evident results 
is owing to the fact that this subject has been made too much 
of pure science and not enough of applied. It is upon the 
effort to utilize grammar as an effective means of improving 
our language habits that the plea for the recognition of this 
text is based. 



PREFACE v 

This book is the outgrowth of many years' experience in 
the teaching of grammar, composition, and literature. The 
entire work has been carefully planned and revised again 
and again. Every detail has been given study and research. 
While the end in view has been the writing of a practical 
grammar, the endeavor has been to secure an arrangement 
and a treatment that would be both psychological and ped- 
agogical. 

The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to 
President Sidney G. Gilbreath of the East Tennessee State 
Normal School, who has examined the manuscript and made 
helpful criticisms and suggestions; to his esteemed colleague, 
Dean C. Hodge Mathes, who has examined critically the 
entire work and discussed with the author many of its phases; 
to the hundreds of teachers, who as former pupils of the author 
were ever to him a source of help and inspiration; also to the 
beloved English teacher of his youth, Mrs. S. E. L. Hopwood, 
who gave to him his first interest in the subject of grammar. 

D. S. B. 



PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



PART ONE 

THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

Chapter I 

THE SENTENCE 

1. What a Sentence Is. — Examine the following groups 
of words: 

(1) My brother James 

(2) has a new bicycle 

(3) Mary and Jane 

(4) are visiting their aunt 

You will note that each of the foregoing groups of 
words presents certain ideas, or mental pictures, to the 
mind, but, taken separately, not a group expresses a 
complete thought. Now combine the groups thus: 

(1) My brother James has a new bicycle. 

(2) Mary and Jane are visiting their aunt. 

You will note that each group, thus combined, 
expresses a complete thought. A group of words 
expressing a complete thought is called a sentence. 

A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete 
thought. 

1 



2 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

2. How a Sentence is Marked. — Examine the follow- 
ing sentences: 

(1) I have a gold watch. 

(2) When did you get your new hat? 

(3) What a beautiful valley is this! 

You will note that each of the foregoing sentences 
begins with a capital letter. You will note, also, that 
the first sentence is followed by a period (.), the second 
by an interrogation point (?), and the third by an 
exclamation point (!). Such is the regular way of mark- 
ing the beginning and the end of a sentence. 

A sentence begins with a capital letter and is followed 
by a period or an interrogation point or an exclamation 
point 

Exercise 1 

(1) Point out each sentence in the following selection 
and note how each begins and ends: 

Have you ever heard of the golden apples that grew in the 
garden of the Hesperides? Ah, those were such apples as would 
bring a great price, if any of them could be found growing in the 
orchards nowadays! But not so much as a seed of those apples 
exists any longer. 

Children used to listen, open-mouthed, to the stories of the 
golden apple-tree. Young men, who desired to do a braver thing 
than any of their fellows, set out in quest of this fruit. Many of 
them returned no more; none of them brought back the apples. 
No wonder that they found it impossible to gather them! It is 
said that there was a dragon beneath the tree, with a hundred ter- 
rible heads, fifty of which were always on the watch, while the 
other fifty slept. 

(2) Tell which of the following groups of words are 
sentences and which are not; then try to combine the 
groups in such a way as to make sentences of all: 



THE SENTENCE 3 

1. A giant by the name of Hercules 

2. Went in search of the golden apples 

3. He was wrapped in a lion's skin 

4. And carried a mighty club in his hands 

5. He came upon some beautiful young women 

6. Weaving flowers into wreaths 

7. They tried to get him to go back to his mother 

8. He carelessly lifted his club 

9. And let it fall on a rock nearby 

10. With the force of that idle blow 

11. The rock was shattered all to pieces 

12. Do you believe 

13. That such a blow 

14. Would have crushed 

15. One of the dragon's heads 

(3) Write a sentence about each of the following 
words : 

home girls knife Gulf of Mexico basket-ball 

boys Charles robin Benjamin Franklin South America 

Note to the Teacher. — If the pupils are weak in identifying sen- 
tences, exercises similar to the foregoing may be drawn from other 
books and be continued. 

Kinds of Sentence as to Meaning 

3. Declarative Sentence. — Note these examples: 

William is my brother. 
Spring has come at last. 

The foregoing sentences tell or declare something. A 
sentence that tells or declares something is called 
declarative. 

A declarative sentence is a sentence that tells or de- 
clares something. 



4 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

4. Interrogative Sentence. — Note these examples: 

Which is your brother? 
What did she tell you? 

The foregoing sentences ask a question. A sentence 
that asks a question is called interrogative. 

An interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks a 
question. 

An interrogative sentence, which asks a question, is the opposite 
of a declarative sentence, which asserts; as, Who will go? (I will 
go.) 

Exercise 2 

(1) Point out all declarative and interrogative sen- 
tences in Exercise 1. 

(2) Find ten declarative sentences, then change them 
into interrogative, and bring both sets to class. 

(3) Write first a declarative sentence, then an inter- 
rogative, about each of the following words: 

school ball health lily mocking-bird 

tennis apples muscles Italy Thomas Jefferson 

5. Imperative Sentence. — Note these examples: 

Ask Mary to go with us. 
Let us try hard to win. 

The first of the foregoing sentences expresses a com- 
mand, the second expresses an entreaty. A sentence 
that expresses a command or an entreaty is called 
imperative.* 

An imperative sentence is a sentence that expresses a 
command or an entreaty. 

* According to the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature, 
all sentences are either declarative or interrogative, either exclamatory 
or non-exclamatory. The Committee regards imperative sentences as 
declarative. 



THE SENTENCE 5 

6. Exclamatory Sentence.— Note these examples: 

Now you have done it! 
Who would have thought it! 
Remember the school and play, boys! 

The first of the foregoing sentences is declarative, the 
second is interrogative, the third is imperative; but, as 
here used, each sentence expresses strong or sudden 
feeling, and, for that reason, is called exclamatory. 

An exclamatory sentence is a sentence that expresses 
strong or sudden feeling. 

You will note that each of the foregoing exclamatory 
sentences is followed by an exclamation point. This 
mark is the means by which an exclamatory sentence 
is distinguished from the other types. 

An ordinary declarative or imperative sentence is fol- 
lowed by a period, an ordinary interrogative sentence by 
an interrogation point. 

Exercise 3 

(1) Classify the following sentences: 

1. Hide, Martha, hide! 7. Dance to the beat of the 

2. Who comes there? rain, little Fern. 

3. Is it possible? 8. The lark's on the wing. 

4. He prayeth best who loveth 9. The trees are all alive! 

best. 10. Come here, Elizabeth. 

5. Hear me and obey! 11. All's right in the world. 

6. God has touched him. — Why 12. The woods are full of fairies! 

should we? 

(2) Tell what kind of sentence each of the foregoing 
exclamatory sentences would be if it did not express 
strong or sudden feeling. 

(3) Classify the sentences in Exercise 6. 



6 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

Subject and Predicate 

7. Essential Parts of a Sentence. — Examine the follow- 
ing sentences: 

Henry won. 
Animals have feelings like ours. 
All young animals are like babies. 

You will note that each of the foregoing sentences 
consists of two parts. The first part names that of 
which something is said and is called the subject; the 
second part tells what is said of the subject and is 
called the predicate. 

The subject of a sentence names that of which some- 
thing is said. 

The predicate of a sentence tells what is said of the 
subject. 

The subject of an imperative sentence is not usually expressed, 
but may be readily supplied: as, Go (you go) at once; Wait (you 
wait) for me. 

Exercise 4 

(1) Tell whether each of the following parts may be 
used as subject or predicate; then supply words so as 
to make a sentence of each: 

1. The robin 10. The early settlers 

2. Comes very early 11. Feeds the world 

3. The warm showers of April 12. The first steam engine 

4. Will bring flowers 13. Was conquered in the battle 

5. The hot summer sun of Waterloo 

6. Country children 14. Had many hardships 

7. Makes the crops grow 15. Napoleon Bonaparte 

8. Should love nature 16. Was called "Old Hickory" 

9. Wrote the Declaration of In- 

dependence 



THE SENTENCE 7 

(2) Separate the following sentences into subject and 

predicate : 

Model for written exercise: 

The wind | is blowing hard. 

1. The day was bright. 

2. The count loves his daughter. 

3. The clouds have hidden gold in them. 

4. A good summer storm is a rain of riches. 

5. Never punish a spirited animal for fretting. 

6. Teasing a horse or a dog tends to spoil its temper. 

7. Their rule of life is to make business a pleasure. 

8. Gold once out of the earth is no more due unto it. 

9. The Indians had a sort of money made of clam shells. 

10. This strange sort of specie was taken in payment of debts 
by the English settlers. 

8. Compound Subject. — Note these sentences : 

(1) James spoke. (2) Henry spoke. 
The subjects of the foregoing sentences are different 
but the predicates are the same. By connecting the 
subjects, the two sentences may be combined into one; 

thus, 

James and Henry spoke. 

A subject consisting of two or more connected sub- 
jects having the same predicate is called compound. 

A compound subject is a subject consisting of two or 
more connected subjects having the same predicate. 

9. Compound Predicate. — Note these examples: 

(1) Mary came. (2) Mary returned. 
The predicates of the foregoing sentences are differ- 
ent but the subjects are the same. By connecting the 
predicates, the two sentences may be combined into 
one; thus, 

Mary came but returned. 



8 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

A predicate consisting of two or more connected 
predicates having the same subject is called compound. 

A compound predicate is a predicate consisting of two 
or more connected predicates having the same subject. 

Both subject and predicate may be compound; thus, 
Mary and Susan came but returned. 

Exercise 5 

Separate the following sentences into subject and 

predicate. Tell which subjects and which predicates 

are compound. 

Model for written exercise: 

Jane and Martha sang and played for us. 

1. An archer and a trumpeter were traveling together. 

2. The archer boasted of his skill and made fun of the 
trumpeter. 

3. He drew out an arrow and shot an eagle hovering over the 
tree-tops. 

4. A robber and his band were seen approaching with drawn 
swords. 

5. The archer discharged an arrow and laid low the leader of 
the band. 

6. The rest soon overpowered the archer and bound his hands. 

7. The purse and wallet of the trumpeter were taken away. 

8. The trumpeter said nothing but began to play on his horn. 

9. He blew long and loud. 

10. The guards of the king heard the blast, surrounded the band, 
and carried them off to prison. 

Order of Subject and Predicate 

10. Natural Order. — Examine these sentences: 

One thing pleased me. 

Sir Percival hailed the porter. 

Which of you will lend us a hand? 

The great bell above rang wildly out. 



THE SENTENCE 9 

The subject of each of the foregoing sentences pre- 
cedes the predicate. This is the natural position of the 
subject and predicate. Hence, when the subject pre- 
cedes the predicate, the order is said to be natural. 

11. Inverted Order. — Examine these sentences: 

Next came the boys. Stand ye here, my braves. 

You will note that in the first of the foregoing sen- 
tences the subject follows the predicate; that in the 
second the subject stands between the parts of the 
predicate. When the subject follows the predicate or 
stands between the parts of the predicate, the order is 
said to be inverted. 

An inverted declarative sentence is often introduced by the word 
there; as, 

There were many present. (Many were present.) 

The word there, when used to introduce a sentence, is called an 
expletive, a term meaning "something that fills out." 

In the interrogative sentence the inverted order is almost the 
rule. Note these examples: 

When shall we go? (We shall go when?) 
Have they called yet? (They have called yet?) 

Exercise 6 

(1) Tell whether the order of the following sentences 
is natural or inverted, and restore each inverted sen- 
tence to its natural order: 

1. Bright rose the sun. 7. There's (there is) mercy in 

2. Who comes here? every place. 

3. They met in council. 8. Why stand ye idle now? 

4. Were the boats lost? 9. They sang a hymn and went 

5. Whom seek ye? out. 

6. When did they appear? 10, There stood the general, 



10 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

(2) Separate the following sentences into subject and 
predicate : 

1. How beautiful is youth! 

2. Trifles make the life of man. 

3. Out of the bay rose the billows. 

4. There's nothing so kingly as kindness. 

5. Many talk like philosophers and live like fools. 

6. One of the sublimest things in the world is plain truth. 

7. A dew drop on the infant plant has warped the giant oak for- 

ever. 

8. Under the spreading chestnut tree 

The village smithy stands. 

9. He goes on Sunday to the church, 

And sits among his boys. 

10. Every evening from thy feet 
Shall the cool wind kiss the heat. 

11. Behind him lay the gray Azores, 
Behind the Gates of Hercules. 

12. At midnight, in the month of June, 
I stand beneath the mystic moon. 

We have seen (1) that a sentence is a group of 
words expressing a complete thought. Hence, the 
fundamental, or simplest, units of a sentence are 
words. Later we shall see how, within the sentence, 
words are often joined with other related words into 
larger units, which have the use, or function, of a 
single word in the sentence. 

Naturally, then, in the study of the units of a sen- 
tence, we shall begin with words. After this, we shall 
study" the larger sentence units composed of groups of 
words. 






Chapter II 
PARTS OF SPEECH 

12. Parts of Speech Defined. — Note this sentence: 

James returned yesterday. 

In the foregoing sentence, as in all sentences, each 
word has a certain use, or function. For example, James 
is used as a name; returned tells what he did; yesterday 
tells when he returned. The classes into which words 
are divided according to their use, or function, in the 
sentence are called the parts of speech. 

The parts of speech are the classes into which words 
are divided according to their use, or function, in the 
sentence. 

While there are many thousands of words in our 
language, there are only eight parts of speech; namely, 
nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, 
conjunctions, and interjections. 

13. Nouns. — Words like man, horse, tree, hill, valley, 
are used as names. A word of this kind may name: 

(1) A person; as, John, Mary, aunt, teacher. 

(2) A place; as, Louisville, California. 

(3) A thing; as, cow, book, army, sleep, honesty, song. 
The name of anything is called a noun, a term mean- 
ing "name." 

A noun is the name of anything. 

Exercise 7 

(1) Bring to the class a list of the names of ten per- 
sons, ten places, and ten things. 

ll 



12 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 



(2) Point out the nouns in the following sentences: 

1. Ruth left her book at school. 

2. Spring is the year's pleasant king. 

3. The good knight admired the little boy. 

4. George's father has bought an automobile. 

5. Life is earnest and the grave is not its goal. 

6. The year's at the spring and the day's at the morn. 

7. The dishonest mayor of Hamelin refused to pay the piper. 

8. Mary's cousin Walter has returned to his home in the city. 

9. De Soto sought to awe the Indians by claiming to be one of 
the gods. 

10. The noblest men who live on earth are men whose hands are 
brown with toil. 

14. Pronouns. — Words like he, his, him, she, her, hers, 
are not names; they are only substitutes for names. 
For example, if we say "John loves his brother/' the 
word his does not name any one; it merely takes the 
place of the noun John's. The sentence would sound 
very awkward if we should say "John loves John's 
brother." A word used instead of a noun is called a 
pronoun, a term meaning "for a noun." 

A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 

Both nouns and pronouns are also called substantives, 
a term meaning "something self-existent," or "some- 
thing that we think about." 

Exercise 8 

(1) Tell whether the following words are nouns or 
pronouns : 



house 


ours 


potato 


tulip 


prince 


it 


rock 


which 


thou 


herself 


what 


us 


these 


coffee 


forest 


day 


whoever 


cousin 


thee 


sword 


they 


letter 


them 


hill 


themselves 



PARTS OF SPEECH 13 

(2) Point out the pronouns in the following sen- 
tences : 

1. Let us try again. 

2. Who told you this? 

3. You may do what you wish. 

4. Let a man examine himself. 

5. Oh, what shall I say to our father, 
In the place to which I fare? 

(3) Point out the substantives in the following sen- 
tences, and tell which are nouns and which are pro- 
nouns : 

1. The people always conquer. 

2. No nation will always endure tyrants. 

3. Of all beasts he learned the language. 

4. I love not man the less but nature more. 

5. Let us make the world safe for democracy. 

6. Who said "My day and my night myself I make"? 

7. Since thou art not sure of a minute, throw not 

away an hour. 

8. Who comes dancing over the snow, 
His soft little feet all bare and rosy? 

15. Adjectives. — The meaning of a word may be 
altered or limited by using another word along with 
it. For example, the word boys applies to boys in gen- 
eral. Good boys applies only to a certain kind of boys. 
Five boys applies only to a certain number of boys. A 
word used to alter or limit the meaning of another 
word is said to modify the word and is called a modifier. 

We often need to use words with nouns or pronouns 
to modify their meaning. For example, the statement 
" Girls are tall" is not true, for many girls are not tall. 
The statement "John has apples" may be true, but it 
fails to tell how many apples he has. The statement 



14 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

"They are" is not complete, for it does not tell what 
they are. 

Now add the word some to modify the noun girls, 
five to modify the noun apples, and happy to modify 
the pronoun they through the word are, and note the 
difference in each statement: 

Some girls are tall. (Statement is true.) 
John has five apples. (Statement is definite.) 
They are happy. (Statement is complete.), 

A word used to modify a noun or a pronoun is called 
an adjective, a term meaning "joined, or added, to." 

An adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a 
pronoun. 

Adjectives modify pronouns less closely or directly than they 
modify nouns. For example, we may say "He is weary" or "He, 
weary, slept," but not "The weary he slept." 

Exercise 9 

(1) Mention as many adjectives to modify the fol- 
lowing nouns as you can think of: 

house tree island studies pens games 

cow birds health teachers letters hills 

(2) Supply an appropriate adjective to modify each 
italicized noun or pronoun: 

1. Girl is my sister. 6. They seemed very . 

2. He gave me oranges. 7. Men love their country. 

3. The day was . 8. He owns lands and houses. 

4. She wears hats. 9. She soon became . 

5. People pay their debts. 10. Only men are to be admired. 

(3) Point out the adjectives in the following selec- 
tions : 



PARTS OF SPEECH 15 

1. Mowers, weary and brown and blithe, 
What is the word methinks ye know? 

2. Across the lonely beach we flit, 

One little sandpiper and I, 
And fast I gather, bit by bit, 

The scattered driftwood, bleached and dry. 

3. What constitutes a state? 

Not high-raised battlements or labored mound, 

Thick wall or moated gate; 
Not cities proud, with spires and turrets crowned; 

Not bays and broad-armed ports, 
Where, laughing at the storm, rich navies ride; 

Not starred and spangled courts, 
Where low-browed baseness wafts perfume to pride. 

No! Men — high-minded men. 

16. Verbs.— Such groups of words as "We to town," 
"They at home/' "He soundly," are not sentences, for 
they do not tell or assert anything. 

Now .in the first group insert went, in the second 
insert are, and in the third insert sleeps, and note that 
each group then becomes a sentence; thus, 

We went to town. 
They are at home. 
He sleeps soundly. 

As here shown, a group of words, to form a sentence, 
must contain an asserting word. A word that asserts 
is called a verb, a term meaning "the word." 

Verbs differ as to what they assert. For example, 
went asserts action, are asserts being, sleeps asserts con- 
dition. Most verbs assert action. Hence, 

A verb is a word that asserts action, being, or con- 
dition. 



16 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

Often a group of words has the use of a single verb; 
thus, 

Do you know that he has come? 
I must go but shall return soon. 

Here four groups of words — do know, has come, must 
go, and shall return — are used like single verbs to 
assert. 

A group of words having the use of a single verb is 
called a verb-phrase. 

A verb-phrase is a group of words having the use of 
a single verb. 

Exercise 10 

(1) Convert each group of words into a sentence by 
supplying an appropriate verb: 

1. She my cousin. 6. It soon very dark. 

2. We our lessons. 7. Father me a bicycle. 

3. Who you this? 8. Thomas me to go with him. 

4. Where you then? 9. She beautiful flowers. 

5. I very hopeful. 10. We a great deal of fun. 

(2) Point out the verbs in the first five sentences, the 
verb-phrases in the last five: 

1. We rose up early. 6. What did you say? 

2. Worth makes the man. 7. I must speak to him. 

3. Try, try again. 8. When can their glory fade? 

4. The sun shone brightly. 9. They have fought hard. 

5. It was the time when lilies 10. Here hath been dawning an- 

blow. other blue day. 

(3) Point out the verbs and the verb-phrases: 

1. God helps them that help themselves. 

2. I did not think it could be done so soon. 

3. I know the song that the bluebird is singing. 

4. You must rise with the sun and ride with the same. 

5. The gates of heaven are open to all who truly believe. 



PARTS OF SPEECH 17 

6. You will find it easy enough to exchange a golden rose like that. 

7. A soldier who has been in the wars is not particular about his 
lodgings. 

8. It might have been better for Pandora if she had had a little 
work to do. 

17. Adverbs. — Often a modifier is needed with a verb 
to express the added idea of time, place, manner, degree, 
or the like. For example, the sentence "He walks" 
tells only in a general way what he does. It does not 
tell us when, where, how, or how much he walks, or any 
other circumstance of his walking. Note how, by the 
adding of a modifier, we are given more exact informa- 
tion as to his walking: 

He walks now. (Now tells when he walks.) 

He walks there. (There tells where he walks.) 

He walks fast. (Fast tells how he walks.) 

He walks often. (Often tells how much he walks.) 

He therefore walks. (Therefore tells why he walks.) 

He walks not. (Not expresses denial.) 

He surely walks. (Surely expresses certainty.) 

He probably walks. (Probably expresses doubt.) 

A word used to modify a verb is called an adverb, 
a term meaning "to a verb." 

An adverb may also modify an adjective or another 
adverb. Note these examples: 

(1) She is a very happy girl. 

(2) You are talking too fast. 

In the first sentence the adverb very modifies the 
adjective happy, for it tells how happy. In the second 
sentence the adverb too modifies the adverb fast, for it 
tells how fast. Hence, 

An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an ad- 
jective, or another adverb. 



18 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

Exercise 11 

(1) Supply an appropriate adverb with each verb: 

1. Martha sings — . 4. The deer runs . 



2. The wind blew . 5. The army marched . 

3. James spoke . 6. Boys, play . 

(2) Supply an appropriate adverb with each ad- 
jective: 

1. George is strong. 3. I am ; — tired to go. 

2. strange it seemed! 4. He is tall as Alfred. 

(3) Supply an appropriate adverb with each adverb: 

1. The wind blew hard. 3. He came late to speak. 

2. I cannot walk fast as 4. Charles writes plainly 

you. than William. 

(4) Point out the adverbs in the following sentences 
and tell what word each one modifies: 

1. He never came here again. 

2. The scornful soon grow old. 

3. I have seen you there often. 

4. He loved not wisely but too well. 

5. Why did you not come back earlier? 

6. The men rushed out very unexpectedly. 

7. Hate ever so much, there is also love. 

8. He spoke quickly, for he always thought quickly. 

9. Aladdin was so delighted that he could hardly 

answer his mother. 
10. Look up and not down, look forward and not 
back, look out and not in, and lend a hand. 

18. Prepositions. — The words "He came boat" do not 
express a complete thought, for no kind of relation is 
shown between the verb came and the noun boat. Sup- 
ply the word by to show the relation of means, and 
note that the meaning is then complete; thus, 

He came by boat. 



PARTS OF SPEECH 



19 



To illustrate further, note how the italicized word 
in each of the following sentences shows the relation 
between the verb and the accompanying noun, thus: 

He came at noon. (Relation of time.) 
He came from home. (Relation of place.) 
He came in haste. (Relation of manner.) 
He came through fear. (Relation of cause.) 
He came for help. (Relation of purpose.) 

You will note that in each of the foregoing sentences 
the italicized word is placed before a substantive and 
that it shows the relation between the substantive and 
the verb came. A word placed before a substantive to 
show its relation to some other word in the sentence is 
called a preposition, a term meaning "placed before." 

A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to 
show its relation to some other word in the sentence. 

Sometimes the preposition follows the substantive; as, They 
sailed the seas over (over the seas); It was he that I spoke to (to 
whom I spoke). 

The substantive with a preposition is often called the object of 
the preposition. 

The following is a list of prepositions in common use: 



aboard 


before 


for 


through 


about 


behind 


from 


till 


above 


below 


in 


to 


according to 


beneath 


into 


toward, towards 


across 


beside 


near 


under 


after 


besides 


of 


until 


against 


between 


off 


unto 


along 


beyond 


on 


up 


amid, amidst 


by 


over 


upon 


among, amongst 


down 


past 


with 


around 


during 


round 


within 


at 


except 


since 


without 



20 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

Exercise 12 

(1) From the foregoing list select an appropriate 
preposition and supply it in each blank. 

1. James returned Charles. 

2. This package came express. 

3. Let us remain here Wednesday. 

4. I differ you this question. 

5. I have been living Washington June. 

6. I will speak him — the matter dinner. 

7. Wait me the post-office six o'clock. 

8. While out sailing a boat, he fell the water. 

(2) Point out the prepositions and tell the substan- 
tive used with each: 

1. It floated down the river. 

2. They rushed upon the enemy. 

3. The guard sleeps during the day. 

4. Tell him to wait for me until noon. 

5. The evil that men do lives after them. 

6. All of the ships except five were lost in the storm. 

7. Some slaves are bought with money, others with praise. 

8. We give good advice by the bucket, but take it by the grain. 

9. He who is good at making excuses is seldom good at any- 
thing else. 

10. It is better for a city to be governed by a good man than 
by good laws. 

19. Conjunctions. — Some words are used for the pur- 
pose of connecting other words. Note these examples: 

William and Mary. 

Gold or silver. 

Not red but white. 

And connects the words William and Mary, or con- 
nects the words Gold and silver, but connects the words 
red and white. A word used to connect other words is 






PARTS OF SPEECH 



21 



ti 



a joining to- 



called a conjunction, a term meaning 
gether." 

Conjunctions are often used to connect groups of 

words; thus, 

On land and on sea. 

To be or not to be 

For principle but not for profit. 

The groups of words connected by conjunctions may- 
be single sentences, which are thereby combined into 
larger sentences; thus, 

and 
but 
that 

if 
lest 



You go 

Man errs 

We believe 

Help the weak 

We should watch 



I will stay. 
God forgives, 
we are in the right, 
you are strong, 
we stumble. 



A conjunction is a word used to connect words or 
groups of words. 

The following conjunctions are in common use: 



although 


however 


notwithstanding 


unless 


and 


if 


or 


when 


as 


inasmuch as 


since 


whereas 


because 


lest 


than 


whether 


but 


nor 


that 


while 


for 


nevertheless 


though 


yet 



A few conjunctions consist of two members, the former member 
serving to prepare us for the latter; as, both men and boys, neither 
gold nor silver. Here both . . . and connects men and boys, neither 
. . . nor connects gold and silver. 

The leading conjunctions of two members are: 

although . . . yet neither .... nor 

both . . . and not onty . . but (also) 

either ... or though . . . yet 



22 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

Exercise 13 

(1) From the foregoing lists select an appropriate 
conjunction and supply it in each blank: 

1. He I are cousins. 7. Use a pen — — — a 

2. He is small strong. pencil. 

3. I will try I fail. 8. I hope we shall win. 

4. He is older John. 9. We shall win we try 

5. I cannot play now, I hard. 

must study. 10. I do not know to go 

6. It is cold hot. to stay. 

(2) Point out the conjunctions: 

1. Flowers neither toil nor spin. 

2. Man proposes, but God disposes. 

3. Well done is better than well said. 

4. Who can harm us if we keep together? 

5. All are welcome here, both rich and poor. 

6. Money is a good servant, but a bad master. 

7. Not enjoyment, and not sorrow, 

Is our destined end or way; 

But to act, that each tomorrow 

Find us farther than today. 

8. The night has a thousand eyes, 

And the day but one; 
Yet the light of the bright world dies 
With the dying sun. 

9. This world is not so bad a world 

As some would like to make it; 
Though whether good or whether bad, 

Depends on how we take it. 
10. Then conquer we must, for our cause it is just, 
And this be our motto — "In God is our trust." 

20. Interjections. — Note the italicized words: 

Oh, a wonderful pudding! Ho, the sailor of the seas! 

The drum, lot was dumb. Ah, ha! Come, some music! 



PARTS OF SPEECH 23 

The words Oh, lo, Ho, Ah, and ha are thrown into 
the sentence, so to speak, without grammatical con- 
nection, and are used to express strong or sudden feel- 
ing. A word used to express strong or sudden feeling is 
called an interjection, a term meaning " thrown in between." 

An interjection is a word used to express strong or 

sudden feeling. 

An interjection may express joy, pain, delight, sorrow, surprise, 
disgust, impatience, disappointment, or other feeling. 

An interjection is often followed by an exclamation 
point. 

Exercise 14 

Point out the interjections in the following sentences: 

1. Hum! I guess at it. 7. Ha, ha, ha! life is lovely and 

2. Hail, morning star! sweet. 

3. Pshaw! I thought it. 8. Oh, who are you, young man? 

4. Hark! I hear horses. 9. 0, treachery! Fly, good Fle- 

5. Ay, water you shall have. ance, fly! 

6. Fie, fie, Gratiano. 10. "Hollo! Gluck, my boy/' 

said the pot again. 

21. Same Word as Different Parts of Speech. — Some 

words, without changing their form, may serve as dif- 

erent parts of speech. Note these examples: 

Right must win. (Noun: used as a name.) 

They right no wrongs. (Verb: asserts action.) 

Act in the right way. / V^ UJ eive : modifies the noun way.) 

All goes right now. \ (Advef modifies the verb goes.) 

Sometimes a word, without losing its identity as one 

part of speech, is used with the force of another; thus, 

This is a gold watch. (Noun used as an adjective.) 
He loves the beautiful. (Adjective used as a noun.) 
Let us start from here. (Adverb used as a noun.) 
Come on the down train. (Adverb used as an adjective.) 



24 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

Exercise 15 
(1) Tell the part of speech of the italicized words: 



1. (a) Brown the cake. (b 

2. (a) What plant is this? (b 

3. (a) Do you like blue? (b 

4. (a) He is an early riser. (b 

5. (a) Wifom this, John. (b 

6. (a) Who are those boys? (6 

7. (a) Men /wnor noble deeds. (6 

8. (a) What is your address? (b 

9. (a) Will you not come in? (b 
10. (a) Will you wait for me? (6 



11. (a) He grew wp very fast. (b 

12. (a) He bought a load of brick. (b 

13. (a) Light the lamp. (6) The Zi'grfa is out 



The cake is brown. 
Plant this seed. 
I have a blue hat. 
He rises early. 
You are my witness. 
Those are all yours. 
Men esteem honor. 
Address the letter. 
He is in the house. 
Wait, for I am coming. 
He went up the street. 
He lives in a 6ncA; house. 



(c) It is Hgr/iJ. 



(6) jT/wrf book is mine 
(6) Mwc/i time is wasted 



(c) I believe 
(c) Afwcft 
(6) She spoke onfo/ once, (c) Go, 



14. (a) Who said that? 
that I am right. 

15. (a) He talks much. 
remains to be said. 

16. (a) He is an only son 
only (but) do not stay long. 

17. (a) This is a /as£ train. (6) This train runs /as£. (c) They 
/as£ occasionally, (d) The fast is over. 

18. (a) I ft&e this. (6) Like begets like, (c) Li&e causes produce 
like effects, (d) He runs like a deer. 

19. (a) He stayed here only a short while, (b) Write to me 
while I am away, (c) We while away our time with reading. 

20. (a) He came soon after, (b) He came after dinner, (c) He 
came after I came. (d).In a/ter yet' ne ' ._jrew famous. 

(2) After the manner of the foregoing exercise illus- 
trate the use of the following words as directed: 

1. Stamp as a noun and a verb. 

2. Clean as an, adjective and a verb. 

3. Sound as a noun, an adjective, and a verb. 

4. SHU as a noun, an adjective, a verb, and an adverb. 






PARTS OF SPEECH 25 

Verbals 

Some words share in the nature of two parts of 
speech. This is true of certain forms of the verb known 
as verbals. These forms denote action, being, or condi- 
tion just as the verbs from which they are derived, but 
they have the use of nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. 

There are three kinds of verbals: infinitives, parti- 
ciples, and gerunds.* 

22. Infinitives. — Note this example: 

Mary likes to>sing. 

To sing shares in/the nature of a verb and a noun. 
Like the verb sing it denotes action, but, instead of 
asserting the action of a particular subject, it has the 
use of a noun naming the thing which Mary likes, that 
is, to sing. As this form of the verb denotes action, 
being, or condition without limiting it to a particular 
person and number, it is called an infinitive, a term 
meaning "unlimited." 

An infinitive can easily be recognized because of its being pre- 
ceded by to as its sign, though sometimes to is omitted; as, He bade 
me go (to go). 

In addition to its being used as a noun, an infinitive, as we shall 
see later, may be used as an adjective or an adverb. 

23. Participles. — Note this example: 

Seeing me, he came forward. 

Seeing shares in the nature of a verb and an ad- 
jective. Like the verb see it denotes action, but, in- 

* Infinitives, participles, and gerunds are fully treated in Part II, 
Chapter V. They are introduced here merely to give a passing ac- 
quaintance with these terms. This discussion may be taken up later. 



26 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

stead of asserting the action of a particular subject, it 
has the use of an adjective modifying the pronoun he. 
A word sharing in the nature of a verb and an adjec- 
tive is called a participle, a term meaning "sharing, or 
participating, in." 

Participles commonly end in ing, ed, d, t, en, or n. 

24. Gerunds. — Note this example: 

On seeing me, he came forward. 

Seeing shares in the nature of a verb and a noun. 
Like the verb see it denotes action, but, instead of 
asserting the action of a particular subject, it has the 
use of a noun with the preposition on. A word ending 
in ing and sharing in the nature of a verb and a noun 
is called a gerund. 

The difference between the gerund and the participle ending in 
ing lies in the use; the gerund being used as a noun, the participle 
being used as an adjective. 

Exercise 16 

(1) Point out the infinitives: 

1. She likes to read. 5. They ran to meet us. 

2. To do this is easy. 6. Tell him to come back. 

3. We hope to be there. 7. Be sure to call for us. 

4. He wishes to speak. 8. I am unable to answer. 

(2) Point out the participles: 

1. They came rushing out. 5. We saw the ship launched. 

2. He stood gazing upward. 6. Do you hear them singing? 

3. Hearing a noise, they sprang 7. Then he entered, drawn in a 

to their feet. chariot. 

4. The enemy fled, leaving their 8. Frightened by the noise, the 

baggage behind. herd stampeded. 






PARTS OF SPEECH 27 

(3) Point out the gerunds: 

1. On entering he spoke. 4. He enjoys playing ball. 

2. I am tired of waiting for 5. We learn to do things by 

them. doing them. 

3. We can win only by holding 6. Our remaining here longer de- 

out, pends on circumstances. 

(4) Point out the infinitives, participles, and gerunds: 

1. Taking his hat, he departed. 

2. After taking his hat, he departed. 

3. Some people are apt at making excuses. 

4. He went off, threatening never to return. 

5. On returning home, I found him waiting for me. 
6., If you want to have friends, you must be a friend. 

7. Something attempted, something done, has earned 

a night's repose. 

8. A man has no more right to say an uncivil thing 

than to act one. 

25. Inflection. — A word may undergo a change in its 
form to show a change in its meaning or use. Note 
these examples: 

The man speaks. The men speak. 
I come. Thou comest. He comes. 

The change in the form of the word man shows a 
change in its meaning, for man denotes one person, men 
more than one person. The change in the form of the 
word come shows a change in its use, for come is used 
with the subject I, comest with the subject Thou, 
comes with the subject He. A change in the form of 
a word to show a change in its meaning or use is called 
inflection, a term meaning "a bending." 

Inflection is a change in the form of a word to show 
a change in its meaning or use. 






28 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 



Exercise 17 
(General) 

Tell the part of speech of each word in the following 
selections : 

Model for written exercise: 



Noun Pro 



Adj. 



Verb 



Adv. 



Prep. Conj. 



Int. 



I. 

I shot an arrow into the air, 
It fell to earth, I know not where; 
For, so swiftly it flew, the sight 
Could not follow it in its flight. 

I breathed a song into the air, 
It fell to earth, I know not where; 
For who has sight so keen and strong, 
That it can follow the flight of song? 

Long, long afterward, in an oak, 
I found the arrow still unbroke; 
And the song from beginning to end, 
I found again in the heart of a friend. 



II. 

Breathes there a man with soul so dead, 
Who never to himself hath said, 

This is my own, my native land? 
Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned. 
As home his footsteps he hath turned 

From wandering on a foreign strand? 



Chapter III 

SUBJECT SUBSTANTIVE; PREDICATE VERB 

26. Subject Substantive Defined. — Note these examples: 

Mary is here. 

A friend of Mary's is here. 

As we see here, the subject of a sentence may con- 
sist of a single word, as Mary; or of a group of words, 
as A friend of Mary 's. 

If the subject consists of a single word, the word is 
always a substantive (noun or pronoun or word used 
as a noun). 

If the subject consists of a group of words, the group 
contains a substantive, which forms the essential, or 
principal, part of the subject, as friend in the fore- 
going example. The essential, or principal, part of the 
subject is called the subject substantive to distinguish 
it from the entire, or complete, subject. 

For other examples of subject substantive, note the 
italicized part of the complete subject of the following 
sentences : 

I myself will help. 

This book of his is interesting. 

Your plan to help us meets our approval. 

Only one or two of them can be used. 

The subject substantive is the essential, or principal, 
part of the complete subject. 

The subject substantive is often called the simple subject. 

29 



30 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

27. Predicate Verb Defined. — Note these examples: 

Charles came. 

Mary stayed in school. 

As we see here, the predicate of a sentence may con- 
sist of a single word, as came; or a group of words, 
as stayed in school. 

If the predicate consists of a single word, the word 
is always a verb. 

If the predicate consists of a group of words, the 
group contains a verb, which forms the essential, or 
principal, part of the predicate, as stayed in the fore- 
going example. The essential, or principal, part of the 
predicate is called the predicate verb to distinguish it 
from the entire, or complete, predicate. 

For other examples of predicate verb, note the ital- 
icized part of the complete predicate of the following 
sentences : 

Who told you this? 
Charles has not yet come home. 

A lie faces God and shrinks from man. 

The predicate verb is the essential, or principal, part 
of the complete predicate. 

The predicate verb is often called the simple predicate. 

28. Subject or Verb Omitted. — The subject of an im- 
perative sentence is not generally expressed except for 

emphasis; as, 

Go {you go) with me. 

The verb, when it can readily be supplied, is some- 
times omitted; as, 

This is mine; that, yours (is yours). 



SUBJECT SUBSTANTIVE; PREDICATE VERB 31 

Exercise 18 

(1) Tell whether each of the following sentences lacks 
the subject substantive or the predicate verb, and com- 
plete the sense by supplying an appropriate word: 

1. This man my friend. 5. Whose book that? 

2. James home yesterday. 6. I in New York often. 

3. Two of mine are vis- 7. still have a great deal 

iting me now. to learn. 

4. Your interesting was 8. Just then the signal for at- 

much enjoyed. tack . 



(2) Separate the complete subject of the following 
sentences from the complete predicate, then point out 
the subject substantive and the predicate verb: 

Model for written exercise: 

The little boy I looked up and began to smile. 



1. The news came too late. 

2. We live in deeds, not years. 

3. The groves were God's first temples. 

4. The darkest hour is just before dawn. 

5. Honor and shame from no condition rise. 

6. Be still, sad heart, and cease repining. 

7. Oh, what a goodly outside falsehood hath. 

8. The clouds are at play in the azure space. 

9. Profanity never did any man the least good. 

10. Nature fits all her children with something to do. 

(3) Find ten additional sentences, separate the com- 
plete subject from the complete predicate, point out the 
subject substantive and the predicate verb, and bring 
these sentences to the class. 






Chapter IV 

COMPLEMENTS 

29. Complement Defined. — Some verbs within them- 
selves form a complete predication. Note these exam- 
ples: 

The girls laughed. 
The bright sun rose. 

A verb that within itself forms a complete predication 
is called a complete verb. 

Other verbs within themselves do not form a com- 
plete predication but need an additional word to com- 
plete their meaning. Note these examples: 

Predicate Incomplete Predicate Complete 

I am I am glad. 

You seem You seem happy. 

He has He has money. 

Sometimes a group of words is used to complete the 

predicate verb; thus, 

We want to go home. 
I know what you want. 

A word or a group of words used to complete the 
predicate verb is called a complement, a term meaning 
"that which fills out." 

A complete verb is a verb that within itself forms a 
complete predication. 

A complement is a word or a group of words used to 
complete the predicate verb. 

30. Caution. — Adverbs and complements are not to 
be confounded. An adverb modifies the verb; a com- 
plement completes the verb. An adverb tells when, 

32 






COMPLEMENTS 33 

where, how, how much, why, or the like; a complement 
generally tells what. 

Complete verbs often take adverbial modifiers: as, 
You talk fast; He sings well; We rose early. 

Some verbs are either complete or incomplete accord- 
ing to their use, hence may take either adverbs or 
complements; thus, 

He writes often. (Adverb.) 

He writes letters. (Complement.) 

Exercise 19 

(1) Supply an appropriate complement after such of 
the following verbs as are not complete : 

1. My father has. 6. Only one remains. 

2. Longfellow was. 7. The horses became. 

3. They retreated. 8. That man seems. 

4. The rose smells. 9. Yes, we understand. 

5. The boys saw. 10. All the girls went. 

(2) Tell whether the italicized words are adverbs or 
complements : 

1. He grew fast. 6. He studies hard. 

2. He grew potatoes. 7. She writes stories. 

3. She teaches well. 8. She writes often. 

4. She teaches music. 9. They returned early. 

5. He studies French. 10. They returned the money. 

31. Subjective Complement. — Note these examples: 

The boy is my cousin. 
Their house is white. 

Cousin and white complete the predicate verb. 
Cousin tells who the boy is, or explains the subject. 
White tells the color of the house, or describes the 
subject. 



34 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

For additional examples, note how the following ital- 
icized words complete the predicate verb and explain or 
describe the subject: 

We are brothers. (Subject explained.) 
Alfred became king. (Subject explained.) 
Elizabeth is young. (Subject described.) 
Then the sky grew dark. (Subject described.) 

Sometimes a group of words is used to complete the 
predicate verb and to explain or describe the subject. 
Note these examples: 

My purpose is to be there. (Subject explained.) 
Your life is what you make it. (Subject explained.) 
All of the boys felt out of place. (Subject described.) 

A word or a group of words used to complete the 
predicate verb and to explain or describe the subject 
is called a subjective complement.* 

A verb used to join, or link, the subject with a sub- 
jective complement is called a linking verb. 

A subjective complement is a word or a group of words 
used to complete the predicate verb and to explain or 
describe the subject. 

A linking verb is a verb used to join the subject with 
a subjective complement. 

A linking verb is often called a copulative verb. 

The following are the most common linking verbs: (1) the dif- 
ferent forms of be — am, art, is, are, was, were, etc.; (2) become; (3) 
get, grow, seem, appear, look, feel, taste, smell, remain, continue, and 
the like. 

* The Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature recommends 
the terms Predicate Nominative and Predicate Adjective instead of the 
term Subjective Complement. 






COMPLEMENTS 35 

A subjective complement is also used after such verb-phrases as 
be made, be chosen, be elected, be named, be called: as, He was made 
captain; He is called great. 

The subjective complement may be a noun, as It is John; or a 
pronoun, as It was /; or an adjective, as He is well. 

Exercise 20 

(1) Supply an appropriate word as subjective com- 
plement and tell of what part of speech it is: 

1. Samuel was . 6. This boy is my . 

2. The sky is . 7. We are to see him. 

3. It was not . 8. The apple tastes . 

4. Mary seems . 9. Henry was made . 

5. The day is . 10. I feel for them. 

(2) Point out the subjective complements and tell of 
what part of speech each one is: 

1. She is my friend. 9. They are schoolmates. 

2. They became rich. 10. Alice looks very happy. 

3. His name is Brown. 11. It was not they. 

4. You are fortunate. 12. The cloth feels rough. 

5. He remained loyal. 13. He was elected mayor. 

6. James is a Senior. 14. His voice sounds familiar. 

7. He grew very tall. 15. He was proclaimed king. 

8. The moon was full. 16. Henry Clay was an orator. 

32. Direct Object. — Note these examples: 

John sold his boat. 
Mary wrote an essay. 
We love our teacher. 

Boat tells what John sold, essay tells what Mary 
wrote, teacher tells what we love. Hence boat, essay, 
and teacher complete the predicate verb by denoting that 
which receives the action. 



36 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

Sometimes a group of words denotes that which 
receives the action; thus, 

I want to go soon. {To go soon tells what I want.) 
We know who he is. (Who he is tells what we know.) 

A word or a group of words denoting that which 
receives the action expressed by the verb is called the 
direct object. 

The direct object of a verb is a word or a group of 
words denoting that which receives the action. 

The direct object is regularly a substantive. 

33. Caution. — Care must be taken not to confound 
a subjective complement, which explains or describes 
the subject, with the direct object, which denotes the 
receiver of the action. 

Some verbs may take either a subjective comple- 
ment or a direct object according to their meaning; 
thus, 

(1) He grew old. (2) He grew corn. 

Old is a subjective complement, for it describes the 
subject. Corn is the direct object, for it denotes that 
which receives the action. 

EXEKCISE 21 

(1) Supply an appropriate word as direct object or 
subjective complement and tell which it is in each 
case: 



1. John is my . 6. We caught ten — 

2. They found a . 7. The peach tastes - 

3. We sold our . 8. I have lost my — 

4. Anne sang a . 9. The night grew — 

5. The song was . 10. David seems very 



COMPLEMENTS 37 

(2) Point out the complement in each sentence and 
tell whether it is direct object or subjective comple- 
ment: 

Models for written exercise: 

She I is"! a new pupil. (Subjective Complement.) 



The girls 



are I happy. (Subjective Complement.) 



They I have sold I their farm. (Direct Object.) 

(A vertical mark with a pointer toward the subject indicates a 
subjective complement, with the pointer above if the complement is 
a substantive, below if the complement is an adjective. A simple 
vertical mark indicates the direct object.) 

I. 

1. Milton was a poet. 6. Did you see Joseph? 

2. I read your letter. 7. It was not she. 

3. The ship was large. 8. They raised a shout. 

4. James has measles. 9. She grows flowers. 

5. She looks a queen. 10. They seemed restless. 

II. 

1. Deerslayer read his thoughts. 

2. The people grew more numerous. 

3. The Romans worshiped many gods. 

4. Who would scorn his humble fellow? 

5. The smallest hair casts its shadow. 

6. The sleeping fox catches no poultry. 

7. Diligence is the mother of good luck. 

8. Midas had poured out a cup of coffee. 

9. Clear had been the day from the dawn. 

10. The old man waved his hand with authority. 

11. The longest life is but a parcel of moments. 

12. The king was enjoying himself in the treasure room. 

13. Scott's "Life of Napoleon" had a remarkable success. 

14. We can not measure the need of even the tiniest flower. 



38 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

34. Objective Complement. — Note these examples: 

They called him John. 
This news makes us glad. 

The word John completes the predicate verb called. 
For the thought intended is not "They called him"; it 
is completely expressed only when we tell what they 
called him, namely, John. 

The word glad completes the predicate verb makes. 
For the thought intended is not "This news makes us"; 
it is completely expressed only when we tell how the 
news makes us feel, namely, glad. 

Again, while the words John and glad complete the 
predicate verb, they each relate to the direct object, 
John to him and glad to us, in the way of explaining 
or describing the direct object. 

For additional examples, note how the italicized word 
completes the predicate verb and explains or describes 
the direct object: 

We elected him chairman. 
They dyed the cloth green. 
We appointed him guardian. 

Sometimes a group of words is used to complete the 
predicate verb and to explain or describe the direct 
object; thus, 

We found him in trouble. 

You have made me what I am. 

A word or a group of words used to complete the 
predicate verb and to explain or describe the direct 
object is called an objective complement.* 

* The Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature recommends 
the term Adjunct Accusative instead of the term Objective Complement. 



COMPLEMENTS 39 

An objective complement is a word or a group of 
words used to complete the predicate verb and to 
explain or describe the direct object. 

An objective complement is used after verbs of making, choosing, 
calling, naming, electing, and the like. 

The predicate verb and objective complement may be equivalent 
to a single verb; thus, 

This makes me tired {tires me). 

They made him a knight (knighted him). 

An objective complement may be a noun, as Ye call me chief; 
or a pronoun, as What do you call it? (You do call it what?); or an 
adjective, as This makes me happy. 

Exercise 22 

(1) Supply an appropriate word as objective comple- 
ment and tell of what part of speech it is: 

1. They named her . 6. The jury found him . 

2. Tint the hall . 7. He planed the board . 

3. What makes you so ? 8. We call her — for short. 

4. Do you think me ? 9. Wring the clothes . 

5. I appoint you my . 10. The blow rendered him . 



(2) Point out the objective complement in each sen- 
tence and tell of what part of speech it is: 

Models for written exercise: 

We call her Aunt Sarah. We I call |~Aunt Sarah I her 

He sang himself hoarse. He I sang I hoarse i himself 

(An objective complement is placed between the verb and the 
direct object to show that it completes the predicate verb. The 
mark indicating an objective complement points toward the direct 
object, with the pointer above if the complement is a substantive, 
below if the complement is an adjective.) 



40 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

1. They proclaimed him king. 

2. Tyranny makes men rebellious. 

3. Sloth makes all things difficult. 

4. We have declared the throne vacant. 

5. The French took young Chaucer prisoner. 

6. They have appointed him commander-in-chief. 

7. Cromwell made England once more a great power. 

8. The doctor has pronounced the disease incurable. 

9. After the flight of Pompey, Caesar made himself master of 
Italy. 

.10. The Convention of 1689 elected William and Mary joint 
sovereigns. 

(2) Point out the complement in each sentence and 
tell whether it is subjective, objective, or direct object: 

1. He praised himself. 

2. The committee proved weak. 

3. Own a fault if you are wrong. 

4. Louis XVI was a very weak king. 

5. Napoleon hated anarchy and disorder. 

6. Napoleon became the idol of the soldiery. 

7. We found the young ruler daring and reckless. 

8. Before men made us citizens, great nature made us men. 

9. King Francis was a hearty king, and loved a royal sport. 

10. The Romans used cotton fabrics long before the Christian era. 



Chapter V 

MODIFIERS 

35. Modifier Defined. — We have learned (15) that a 
word used to alter or limit the meaning of another 
word is said to modify the word and is called a modifier; 
thus, 

I met a little cottage girl. 

A, little, and cottage are modifiers of the noun girl. 
Often a group of words is used as a modifier. Note 
these examples: 

He is a man of wealth (a wealthy man). 
Handle this glass with care (carefully). 
We need men who are skilled (skilled men). 

A modifier is a word or a group of words used to 
modify or limit the meaning of another word. 

All modifiers belong to one of two general classes; 
namely, 

(1) Adjectival modifiers, or modifiers of substantives. 

(2) Adverbial modifiers, or modifiers of verbs, adjec- 
tives, or adverbs. 

Adjectives (15), adverbs (17), and participles (23) have 
already been mentioned. 

Two adjectival modifiers, namely, possessives and 
appositives, and one adverbial modifier, namely, indirect 
object, will be discussed in this chapter. 

Groups of words as modifiers will be treated when 
phrases and clauses are taken up (chapters VII and 
VIII). 

41 



42 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 



Exercise 23 
(Review) 

Point out the adjectives, adverbs, and participles, 
and tell what each of these words modifies: 

Models for written exercise: 

(1) This little boy has been rightly praised. 



(1) 



(2) Hearing a voice, we turned aside quickly, 
boy | has been praised 



This 
little 



rightly 



(2) 



we 



turned 



Hearing | voice 



aside 
quickly 



(Note that modifiers are placed under the word modified and are 
connected with it by a vertical line.) 

1. Affection never was wasted. 

2. The morning cock crew loud. 

3. Who is the person helping you? 

4. Smiling, she spoke these words. 

5. A penny saved is a penny gained. 

6. He made many vainglorious boasts. 

7. Two stout horses were soon provided. 

8. A hard beginning maketh a good ending. 

9. This wild enthusiast never could rest. 

10. He was a short, square-built old fellow. 

11. Did ever painted saint have such a halo? 

12. What beggar pities not a begging prince? 

13. A beautiful face is a silent commendation. 

14. So saying, he walked away, and left all the other 

boys behind. 

15. At the first low moaning of the distant cloud, my 

heart shrinks. 




MODIFIERS 

36. Possessive Modifier. — Note these examples: 

I have Edward's pen. 
Is this your knife? 

Edward's is a form of the noun Edward denoting 
ownership, or possession. Your is a form of the pro- 
noun you denoting ownership, or possession. Edward's 
is an adjectival modifier of the noun pen, for it tells 
whose pen is meant. Your is an adjectival modifier 
of the noun knife, for it tells whose knife is meant. A 
form of noun or pronoun used to denote ownership, or 
possession, is called a possessive modifier. 

A possessive modifier is a form of noun or pronoun 
used to denote ownership, or possession. 

Exercise 24 

Point out the possessive modifiers and tell the word 
modified by each: 

Models for written exercise: 

(1) James's brother is here. (2) We like our teacher. 

bro ther is We like | teacher 

James's [here | our 

1. Whose fault is it? 

2. We heard a child's voice. 

3. This is William's bicycle. 

4. His whole manner had changed. 

5. All people have their notions. 

6. This is my brother's new home. 

7. Do you like Jane Austen's novels? 

8. His once smooth face was wrinkled. 

9. "Paradise Lost" is Milton's masterpiece. 
10. In a corner of my house I have books, — the 

miracle of all my possessions. 



44 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

37. Appositive. — Note these examples: 

The poet Bryant wrote " Robert of Lincoln," 
a poem familiar to many boys and girls. 

The word Bryant refers to the same person as poet 
and is used with it to tell what poet is meant. The 
word poem refers to the same thing as " Robert of 
Lincoln" and is used with it to explain its meaning or 
describe it. A word referring to the same person or 
thing as another word and being used with it to explain 
its meaning or to describe it is called an appositive, a 
term meaning "placed beside." 

The appositive may be a group of words; thus, 

The fact that he is here is not known. 

The group of words that he is here is an appositive, 
telling what the fact is. 

An appositive is a word or a group of words referring 
to the same person or thing as another word and being 
used with it to explain its meaning or to describe it. 

An appositive is said to be in apposition with the 
word it explains or describes. 

A pronoun used appositively may emphasize a word 
rather than explain its meaning or describe it; as, You 
must see him yourself. The pronoun yourself is in 
apposition with the subject you and emphasizes it. 

The connectives or, as, namely, that is, to wit, may be 
used to introduce an appositive; thus, 

Pagans, or worshipers of idols. 
Elizabeth's reign as queen of England. 
Substantives; that is, nouns and pronouns. 
His property; to wit, lands and stock. 






MODIFIERS 



45 



An appositive may or may not be essential to the 

sense; thus, 

Essential: The apostle Paul was imprisoned. 

Not essential: Poe, a Southern poet, wrote "The Raven." 

Paul is essential to the sense, for it tells which 
apostle is meant. Poet is not essential to the sense, 
for it merely gives additional information about Poe. 

An appositive not essential to the sense is always set 
off by punctuation, as shown in the example above. 

Exercise 25 

Point out each appositive and tell with what word it 
is in apposition: 

Models for written exercise: 

(1) Who was Peter the Hermit? (2) I did the work myself. 



Peter ( Hermit ) 
the 



was ~| Who 



( myself ) 



did | work 



the 



1. I saw your aunt Rachel. 

2. The word horse is a noun. 

3. Our family physician, Dr. 

Brown, is in Europe. 

4. Two of us, you and I, are in- 

vited. 



II. 



5. We did the work ourselves. 

6. He knew the poet Timrod. 

7. We heard only one word, 

namely, "Forward!" 

8. Have you met Walter Fox, 

our cousin from Atlanta? 



1. Such was he, our Martyr-Chief. 

2. King, ladies, lovers, — all look on. 

3. Across the lonely beach we flit, 

One little sandpiper and I. 

4. Beautiful they were in sooth, 
The old man and the fiery youth! 

5. What was he doing, the great god Pan, 

Down in the reeds by the river? 



46 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

38. Indirect Object. — Note this example: 

Charles gave me an apple. 
The verb gave has two objects, namely, me and 
apple. Apple tells what Charles gave; hence, it denotes 
the immediate, or direct, receiver of the action, and is 
therefore the direct object (32). Me tells to whom Charles 
gave the apple; hence, it denotes not directly the 
receiver of the action, but indirectly the receiver of the 
thing acted upon, namely, the apple. Therefore, a 
word used to denote the receiver of the thing acted 
upon is called the indirect object. 

For other examples of indirect object, note the fol- 
lowing italicized words: 

He told us a story. (Us tells to whom he told the story.) 
I bought him a hat. (Him tells for whom I bought the hat.) 
He paid me the full amount. (Me tells to whom he paid the 
amount.) 

The indirect object of a verb is a word used to denote 
the receiver of the thing acted upon. 

The indirect object is used after the verbs give, lend, 
buy, owe, pay, cause, make, grant, promise, sell, send, 
show, tell, and such other verbs as express the idea of 
telling or transferring something to another. 

39. Caution. — An objective complement is not to be 
confounded with the indirect object. An objective 
complement refers to the same person or thing as the 
direct object and regularly follows the direct object. 
The indirect object refers to a different person or thing 
from the direct object and regularly precedes the direct 
object. Note these examples: 

Objective Complement: He made me secretary. 
Indirect Object: He made me a present. 



MODIFIERS 



47 



The preposition to or for may be supplied with the 
indirect object without changing the sense: as, This 
gave to us a new view; I have bought for them a home. 

The indirect object is an adverbial modifier rather 
than a complement. 

. Exercise 26 

(1) Point out the direct object and the indirect 
object: 

Model for written exercise: 



They have offered me a new position. 



They 



have offered 



position 



me 



a 
new 



(The indirect object is placed under the predicate verb to indi- 
cate that it modifies the predicate verb. The vertical mark before 
the indirect object indicates its nature as an object.) 



I. 



1. Who told you this story? 

2. We assign you this room. 

3. Give me a drink of water. 

4. He brought us a present. 

5. I have sold him a horse. 



6. Will you hand me my hat? 

7. Who lent you this pencil? 

8. Show us the picture, John. 

9. We will make you a loan. 
10. He promised us a holiday. 



II. 



1. Take him this note. 

2. The duke shall grant me justice. 

3. Who gave you the name of Old Glory? 

4. The stranger threw the beggar a dollar. 

5. I would not do him the slightest injury. 

6. Build thee more stately mansions, my soul! 

7. They refused the Russians an additional loan. 

8. Our last investment has yielded us a very large return. 



48 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

(2) Tell whether the italicized word is direct object, 
indirect object, or objective complement: 

1. She made me a new hat. 4. They furnished us a tent. 

2. They made him a knight. 5. I regard you as a friend. 

3. They have branded him a 6. They granted us a large share 

traitor. of the proceeds. 






Chapter VI 
INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS 

40. Independent Element Defined. — Note this example: 

Good friends, I wish to speak. 

The word friends denotes the persons spoken to. 
Hence, it forms a part of the sentence by helping to 
complete the thought, but it has no grammatical con- 
nection either with the subject / or with the predicate 
wish to speak. A part of a sentence having no gram- 
matical connection with the other parts is called an 
independent element. 

An independent element is a part of a sentence having 
no grammatical connection with the other parts. 

The independent elements discussed in this chapter 
are words of address, exclamations, parenthetical expres- 
sions, and pleonasm. 

41. Words of Address. — Note these examples: 

"I love you, Mother," said rosy Nell. 

" Welcome, Sir Lark! You look tired!" said he. 

Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll. 

The italicized words are substantives used to denote 
the person or thing spoken to, or addressed. A sub- 
stantive used to denote the person or thing spoken to 
is called a word of address. 

A word of address is a substantive used to denote the 
person or thing spoken to. 

42. Exclamations. — Note these examples: 

Oh! is it you, young master? 
Silvio! Did you know Silvio? 
Come! A good whole holiday! 
49 



50 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

Each of the foregoing italicized words expresses 
strong or sudden feeling. A word or a group of words 
used to express strong or sudden feeling is called an 
exclamation, a term meaning "a crying out." 

An exclamation is a word or a group of words used to 
express strong or sudden feeling. 

Exclamations are of the following kinds: 

(1) Interjections (20); as ah! pshaw! hist! tut! hurrah! 

(2) Other parts of speech or groups of words used 
with the force of interjections; thus, 

Oh, sleep! It is a gentle thing! (Noun.) 

Oh, fortunate we! the ordeal is past! (Pronoun.) 

See! see! she tacks no more! (Verb.) 

For heaven's sake! what is it? (Group of Words.) 

Exercise 27 

(1) Point out the words of address and the exclama- 
tions : 

Models for written exercise: 

Address: Hear me yet, good Shyloek. 



Tyou 



Hear I me Shyloek 



yet good 



Exclamations: Oh, dream of joy! is this indeed the lighthouse 
top? 

Oh dream this I is | top 



1 of joy I indeed 



the 
lighthouse 



(Words of address and exclamations are put on a line with the 
subject and predicate but are separated from the rest of the sen- 
tence to show that they are independent.) 



INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS 51 



1. Come here, Raymond. 7. America! how I love the 

2. Now, boys, try hard. name! 

3. Enough! say no more! 8. Flow gently, sweet Aft on! 

4. Mother, we are here. 9. Come away, away, children. 

5. What! hast thou dined? 10. God save thee, Ancient Ma- 

6. Goodness! but I was scared! riner! 

II. 

1. Give me of your boughs, Cedar! 

2. Hark! was there ever so merry a note? 

3. Who are you, my strangely gifted guest? 

4. Come forth, ye children of gladness! come! 

5. But ye! — ye are changed since ye met me last! 

6. Those evening bells! how many a tale their music tells! 

(2) Tell the part of speech of each exclamatory word 
in the foregoing sentences. 

43. Parenthetical Expressions. — Note these examples: 

This, indeed, is true. 

At all events, we are safe. 

The plan, / admit, is impractical. 

The italicized expressions belong to neither subject 
nor predicate, and are used by way of comment or 
explanation. A word or a group of words belonging to 
neither subject nor predicate and used by way of com- 
ment or explanation is called a parenthetical expression, 
the term parenthetical meaning "placed in beside." 

A parenthetical expression is a word or a group of 
words belonging to neither subject nor predicate and 
used by way of comment or explanation. 

Parenthetical expressions are set off by punctuation: 
by the comma if the connection is close, as in the fore- 
going examples; by the dash if the expression is an 



52 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

abrupt insertion; by parentheses if the expression is an 
abrupt explanation or reference. Note these examples: 

This man — / forget his name — is an Italian. (Abrupt inser- 
tion.) 

Miss Bell (she is Mrs. Baker now) is here. (Abrupt explanation.) 
This word is an infinitive (page 29). (Reference.) 

Exercise 28 
Point out the parenthetical expressions: 

Models for written exercise: 

(1) He was, indeed, a patriot. 

(2) At any rate, I was careful. 

(3) He, it seemed, was very busy. 

(1) (2) (3) 

He I was " patriot _I was | careful He was ] busy 

|a | very 

indeed At rate it I seemed 



any 

(Parenthetical expressions are set off from the rest of the sen- 
tence to show their independence, and are placed under the main 
part to show that they are a kind of sentence modifier.) 

1. He came late, I think. 7. To be sure, we are going to 

2. This, to my mind, was very be there. 

unreasonable. 8. At any rate, I am very glad. 

3. Go at once, I beg you. ^ 9. This, indeed, is a very un- 

4. She will return soon, I expect. usual sight. 

5. In fact, you ask much. 10. It will rain soon, I hope. 

6. After all, I am not sorry. 

44. Pleonasm. — Sometimes in poetical language the 
subject is repeated. Note the italicized words: 

Then Little John he drew his bow. 
The wedding guest he beat his breast. 
Thy rod and Thy staff, they comfort me. 



INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS 53 

In each of the foregoing sentences the subject is re- 
peated, both a noun and a pronoun being used. The 
use of two words, a noun and a pronoun, in the same 
grammatical office, to refer to the same person or thing, 
is called pleonasm, a term meaning "too much." 

Pleonasm is the use of two words, a noun and a pro- 
noun, in the same grammatical office, to refer to the 
same person or thing. 

Pleonasm is to be avoided in common language. 
Such expressions as "John he told me" are not to be 
used. Say, "John told me." 



Chapter VII 

PHRASES 

45. Phrase Defined. — Note the italicized words: 

George writes carefully. 
George writes with care. 

The foregoing sentences have the same meaning. 
The group of words with care has the meaning and use 
of the single word carefully. For other examples of 
how a group of words may have the meaning and use 
of a single word, note the following sentences: 

James lives here. James is living here. 

John walked hastily. John walked with haste. 

Who is the blue-eyed girl? Who is the girl with blue eyes? 

Often there is no word that will take the place of 
the group of words, but the group has the use of a 
single part of speech in the sentence. Note these 
examples : 

He came here on Monday. (On Monday tells when he came.) 
She lives in Alabama. (In Alabama tells where she lives.) 
I have come io see you. (To see you tells why I have come.) 

You will note that not one of the foregoing groups 
of words contains a subject and predicate. A group 
of related words having the use of a single part of 
speech but not containing a subject and predicate is 
called a phrase. 

A phrase is a group of related words having the use 
of a single part of speech but not containing a subject 
and predicate. 

54 



PHRASES 55 

The words of a phrase are grouped around a central, 
or principal, word, which expresses the leading idea of 
the phrase; as, for example, the italicized word in each 
of the following phrases: 

To go back. For all men. By doing it. Is being sent. 

Phrases noticeably out of their natural order, or 
phrases not essential to the completion of the thought, 
are set off by commas; thus, 

At this sound, he increased his speed. 

My friend, seeing me enter, arose and came forward. 

Thanking the Old Man of the Sea, the hero resumed his journey. 

Exercise 29 

(1) Tell an equivalent phrase for the italicized word: 

1. An Eastern city. 4. A Persian rug. 7. To write rapidly. 

2. A Chicago firm. 5. A mountain boy. 8. A country woman. 

3. A patriotic man. 6. Its cash value. 9. A Reynolds portrait. 

(2) Complete the following sentences by adding one 
or more appropriate words to the italicized word, then 
point out the phrase thus formed: 

1. This belongs me. 7. There is no use trying. 

2. Robert is home now. 8. We live this side the river. 

3. I was born August. 9. I differ you as to this. 

4. Let us sit porch. 10. We have come visit your 

5. Poe was born Boston. school. 

6. The child fell water. 

(3) Point out the phrases in the following sentences: 

1. A young crocodile lived on the bank of the Pasig River. 

2. He was so fierce that no animal dared to approach him. 

3. One day, while resting on a rock, he thought of getting 
married. 

4. "I will give all I have for a wife," he said. 



56 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

5. A coquettish peahen, in passing by, overheard him. 

6. She thought that the two big eyes of the crocodile were dia- 
monds and that the rough skin was made of pearls. 

7. Making up her mind to marry him, she alighted on the rock 
where the crocodile was. 

8. With extreme politeness he made her the offer again and she 
accepted. 

9. He asked her to sit on his mouth, that she might not soil 
her beautiful feathers with mud. 

10. She complied, and made a good dinner for the crocodile. 

46. Kinds of Phrases. — Note how each of the follow- 
ing italicized phrases has the use of a certain part of 
speech: 

We want to go along. 

He is a boy of much promise. 

Alice returned on last Wednesday. 

To go along is the direct object of the verb want, 
for it tells what we want; hence, it has the use of a 
noun. 

Of much promise is a modifier of the noun boy, for 
it describes the boy; hence, it has the use of an 
adjective. 

On last Wednesday is a modifier of the verb returned, 
for it tells when Alice returned; hence, it has the use of 
an adverb. 

Accordingly, phrases, if classified according to their 
use as a certain part of speech, are of three kinds: 

(1) Substantive phrases, or phrases having the use of 
nouns. 

(2) Adjectival phrases, or phrases having the use of 
adjectives. 

(3) Adverbial phrases, or phrases having the use of 
adverbs. 






PHRASES 57 

Grammatical Uses of Phrases 

47. Of Substantive Phrases. — Note the grammatical 
use of each italicized phrase: 

To do this is easy. 
My desire is to help you. 
He likes to read good books. 
He has an ambition to be rich. 

To do this is the subject of the verb is, for it tells 
what is easy. 

To help you is the subjective complement, for it 
completes the meaning of the predicate verb is and 
explains the desire. 

To read good books is the direct object of the verb 
likes, for it tells what he likes. 

To be rich is in apposition with the noun ambition, 
for it refers to the same thing as ambition and is used 
to explain its meaning. 

Accordingly, substantive phrases may be used as: 
(1) subject, (2) subjective complement, (3) direct object, 
(4) appositive modifier. 

A phrase as the real, or logical, subject may be in 
apposition with the pronoun it used as the grammatical 
subject; thus, 

It is good to be here. 

The phrase to be here is in apposition with the pronoun 
It, for it refers to the same thing as It and is used to 
explain its meaning. The sentence might also be ex- 
pressed thus: It, namely, to be here, is good; or simply, 
To be here is good. 

We shall see later that a substantive phrase may also 
be used as the substantive with a preposition, 



58 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 



Exercise 30 

Point out the substantive phrases and tell the use of 
each: 

Models for written exercise: 

(1) To die is to live again. 

(2) I fear to remain longer. 

(3) He has a desire to be first. 

(4) It is hard to give you up. 



To die 



(1) 



to live 



il 



again 



to remain 



(2) J_ I fear | 



longer 



to be I first 



(3) He has | desire ( 



to give | you 



(4) It (_ 



up 



J 



) lis J hard 



(A substantive phrase is put on a support to show that it has 
the use of a single part of speech.) 



1. He asked to see you. 

2. To foretell the result is im- 

possible. 

3. His desire was to meet us 

here. 

4. I had expected to see you 

there. 

5. He formed a plan to unite 

the colonies. 

6. To be great is to be misun- 

derstood. 

7. It is easy to see the mistakes 

of others. 

8. "To Paris" is. the watchword, 



9. He wants to do right. 

10. It takes two to tell a lie. 

11. To live for one's country is 

noble. 

12. He had the power to forgive 

sins. 

13. Young Longfellow's ambition 

was to be a writer. 

14. To be a gentleman is to be 

upright. 

15. You may have your choice, to 

stay here or to go with me. 

16. We have decided to stay here 

during the summer. 



PHRASES 59 

48. Of Adjectival Phrases. — Note the grammatical use 

of each italicized phrase: 

They were men with hoary hair. 
Do you know the man sitting there? 
Henry is a player to be counted on. 

With hoary hair describes men; sitting there describes 
man; to be counted on describes player. Hence, each of 
these adjectival phrases is a direct modifier of the sub- 
stantive. 

The piano is out of tune. 

The boys came running in. 

Julia seems to be happy. 

Out of tune (tuneless) completes the predicate verb is 

and describes the subject piano; running in completes 

the predicate verb came and describes the subject boys; 

to be happy completes the predicate verb seems and 

describes the subject Julia. Hence, each of these 

adjectival phrases is used as a subjective complement 

This put me out of sorts. 

He kept us waiting a full hour. 

Out of sorts completes the predicate verb put and 
describes the direct object me; waiting a full hour com- 
pletes the predicate verb kept and describes the direct 
object us. Hence, each of these adjectival phrases is 
used as an objective complement. 

Accordingly, adjectival phrases may be used as: 
(1) direct modifier, (2) subjective complement, (3) objective 
complement. 

Sometimes adjectives and adjectival phrases are in- 
terchangeable; thus, 

I am an English subject. I am a subject of England. 

He is a trustworthy man. He is a man to be trusted. 



60 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 



Exercise 31 

(1) Substitute a phrase for the italicized word and 
tell how the phrase is used: 

1. He is a wise man. 4. He is a science teacher. 

2. I am an American citizen. 5. This is a homeless child. 

3. Some Oriental customs seem 6. William is a reliable assistant. 

strange to us. 

(2) Compose sentences to illustrate the adjectival use 
of the following phrases: 

1. Of great weight. 2. To be admired. 3. Of dark complexion. 

(3) Point out the adjectival phrases and tell how 
each is used: 

Models for written exercise: 

(1) She is a girl of much promise. 

(2) Hearing a noise, I turned around. 

(3) This watch of yours is out of repair. 

(4) They danced themselves out of breath. 



(1) She is_"] girl 



(2) I 



of promise 



turned 



Hearing I noise 



around 



much 



out of repair 



out of breath 



(3) watch 



This 
of vours 



JiLJ 



(4) They I danced i I themselves 



1. Now is the high tide of the 5. Parkman was the author of a 

year. number of books. 

2. Hear the sledges with the bells. 6. This matter is beyond my 

3. A sense of duty pursues us control. 

ever. 7. Hearing a noise, the hunter 

4. He feels out of humor. stopped. 



PHRASES 61 

8. A pleasing land of drowsy 12. There is a proper time to do 

head it was. all things. 

9. The health of the colony 13. Something upon the soldier's 

showed signs of improve- cheek washed off the 

ment. stains of powder. 

10. The enemy came rushing 14. A home without books is like 

forward. a room without windows. 

11. Seeing his mistake, the 15. She was a girl of seventeen 

speaker apologized. summers. 

49. Of Adverbial Phrases. — Note the grammatical use 
of each italicized phrase: 

He was born in July. 
They live in Richmond. 
The man came in haste. 
They fought for liberty. 

In July tells when he was born; hence, it denotes 
time. In Richmond tells where they live; hence, it 
denotes place. In haste tells how the man came; hence, 
it denotes manner. For liberty tells for what, or why, 
they fought; hence, it denotes cause. 

Accordingly, adverbial phrases may express time, 
place, cause, manner, or other adverbial relations. 

Sometimes adverbs and adverbial phrases are inter- 
changeable; thus, 

They came hastily. They came in haste. 

Do your work carefully. Do your work with care. 

Return immediately, boys. Return at once, boys. 

Exercise 32 

(1) Substitute a phrase for the italicized word and 
tell how the phrase is used: 

1. They acted wisely. 4. Speak reverently. 

2. He entered cautiously. 5. The bird flew swiftly. 

3. I did it purposely. 6. He addressed me thus. 



62 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 



(2) Compose sentences to illustrate the adverbial use 
of the following phrases: 



1. From the country. 

2. Out of the house. 

3. With honor. 



4. To visit us. 

5. On account of fear. 

6. At six o'clock. 



(3) Point out the adverbial phrases and tell what 
each phrase modifies: 

Models for written exercise: 

(1) He was lying on the brow of a hill. 

(2) I was afraid to mount my horse again. 



(1) He 



was lying 
on brow 



(2) J_ I was I 



the 
of hill 



1. I was borne along in the 

press. 

2. The trooper dismounted from 

his steed. 

3. Time and tide wait for no 

man. 

4. Ring out, wild bells, to the 

sky. 
I am far from home. 
A tree is known by its fruits. 
Life is too short for mean 

anxieties. 
He twisted his lips into a 

semblance of a smile. 
They built ships enough to 

float them down the river. 
I was rich in flowers and 

trees. 



9 



10. 



afraid 



to mount I horse 



again { my 



11. He was eager to make the 

engagement. 

12. I was tired out by this time. 

13. A wind came up out of the 

sea. 

14. Robin Hood put his horn to 

his mouth. 

15. A lie never lives to be old. 

16. The British marched by land 

from the town. 

17. The moon above the eastern 

wood shone at its full. 

18. Here among rooks and roses, 

why is the sea-gull flying? 

19. Into the street the Piper 

stept. 

20. At noon the roads all flutter 

with yellow butterflies. 



PHRASES 63 

Exercise 33 
(General) 

(1) Compose sentences to illustrate the use of each of 
the following phrases as directed: 

1. To return home. (Substantive phrase.) 

2. Of great value. (Adjectival phrase.) 

3. To spend a week there. (Adverbial phrase.) 

4. To die for one's country. (Substantive phrase.) 

5. With a large income. (Adjectival phrase.) 

6. Across the continent. (Adverbial phrase.) 

(2) Point out the substantive, adjectival, and ad- 
verbial phrases and tell the grammatical use of each: 

1. To know him was to love him. 

2. I hurry amain to reach the plain. 

3. I am proud of the land of my birth. 

4. For a cap and bells our life we pay. 

5. 'Tis only God may be had for the asking. 

6. Dance to the beat of the rain, little fern. 

7. The basis of good manners is self-reliance. 

8. To the nearest settlement was twenty miles. 

9. Noblest of all the youths was Gabriel, son of the blacksmith. 

10. A carriage drawn by four horses dashed round the turn of 
the road. 

11. A nerve cell is any cell constituting part of the nervous 
system. 

12. After the Norman Conquest, the kings were not quite strong 
enough to become royal tyrants. 

13. The Petition of Rights ranks almost with Magna Charta in 
the history of English liberty. 

14. Listen, my children, and you shall hear 
Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere. 

15. The ocean eagle soared 

From his nest by the white wave's foam. 



Chapter VIII 

CLAUSES 

50. Clause Defined. — Note how a sentence may be 
made up of two or more single sentences which are 
closely enough related in thought to be combined into 
one: 

The cock is crowing, 
The stream is flowing, 
The small birds twitter, 
The lake doth glitter, 
The green field sleeps in the sun. 

The foregoing sentence is made up of five parts, each 
part being a group of words containing a subject and 
predicate; thus, 

Subject Predicate 

(1) The cock is crowing 

(2) The stream is flowing 

(3) The small birds twitter 

(4) The lake doth glitter 

(5) The green field sleeps in the sun 

A group of words containing a subject and predicate 
and forming a part of a sentence is called a clause. 

A clause is a group of words containing a subject and 
predicate and forming a part of a sentence. . 

A clause may be equivalent to a single word or to a 
single phrase; thus, 

Tell me what you believe (or, your belief). 
The man that was injured (or, the injured man) is well. 
This happened as the sun was setting (or, at sunset). 

64 






CLAUSES 



65 



Exercise 34 

(1) Point out the clauses in the following sentences: 

Models for written exercise: 

Can you imagine | what he means? 

Please wait | until I find out | what they want. 

I know I that George will come I if he is able. 



1. He spurred the old horse, and 

he held him tight. 

2. Ask, and it shall be given you. 

3. Tell me plainly what you in- 

tend to do. 

4. I take my property wherever 

I find it. 

5. Now let us sing, Long live 

the King. 

6. I am where I would ever be. 

7. I can but sing because I must. 

8. King James's men shall un- 

derstand what Cornish lads 
can do. 

9. We are here because we were 

invited. 

(2) Substitute a clause 
phrase : 

1. Honest men need not fear. 

2. We can help only the poor. 

3. He arose at sunrise. 

4. I shall wait until his return. 

51. Kinds of Clauses. — 
have the use of a single 
examples : 



10. When the boys came to the 
stream, they plunged in. 

11. We can say nothing but 
what has been said. 

12. He serves me most who 
serves his country best. 

13. A merry heart goes all the 
day, a sad one tires in a 
mile. 

14. Promise is most given when 
the least is said. 

15. He that is proud eats up 
himself. 

16. The dogs did bark, the chil- 
dren screamed, up flew the 

windows all. 

for each italicized word or 



5. I know the writer of this. 

6. Only trained men are wanted. 

7. Let us go before dinner. 

8. It soon grew dark after sunset. 

Clauses, like phrases, may 
part of speech. Note these 



What you state (your statement) is true. 
John is the boy who won (the winning boy). 
Please remain where you are (remain there). 



66 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

What you state is equivalent to the noun statement, 
and is the subject of the verb is; hence, it has the use 
of a noun. 

Who won is equivalent to the adjective winning, and 
is a modifier of the noun boy; hence, it has the use of 
an adjective. 

Where you are is equivalent to the adverb there, and 
is a modifier of the verb stay; hence, it has the use of 
an adverb. 

Accordingly, clauses, if classified with regard to their 
use as a certain part of speech, are of three kinds: 

(1) Substantive clauses, or clauses having the use of 
nouns. 

(2) Adjectival clauses, or clauses having the use of 
adjectives. 

(3) Adverbial clauses, or clauses having the use of 
adverbs. 

The first word of a substantive, adjectival, or ad- 
verbial clause is generally an introductory, or con- 
nective, word, as what, who, where, in the preceding 
examples. 

Sometimes the introductory word is omitted; thus, 

Tell him I am here (that I am here). 

He is the man I mean (that, or whom, I mean). 

52. Uses of Substantive Clauses. — Note the grammat- 
ical use of each italicized clause: 

. That he did it is evident. 
Your life is what you make it. 
At last we know who you are. 
You have made me what I am. 
I have no doubt that we shall win. 



CLAUSES 67 

That he did it is the subject of the verb is, for it 
tells what is evident. 

What you make it is the subjective complement, for 
it completes the meaning of the predicate verb is and 
explains the subject life. 

Who you are is the direct object of the verb know, 
for it tells what we know. 

What I am is the objective complement, for it com- 
pletes the meaning of the predicate verb have made and 
explains or describes the direct object me. 

That we shall win is in apposition with the noun 
doubt, for it refers to the same thing as doubt and is 
used to explain its meaning. 

Accordingly, substantive clauses may be used as: 
(1) subject, (2) subjective complement, (3) direct object, 
(4) objective complement, (5) appositive modifier. 

A clause as the real, or logical, subject may be in 
apposition with the pronoun it used as the grammatical 
subject; thus, 

It is true that we won. {It, namely, that we won, is true.) 

We shall see later that a substantive clause may also 
be used as the substantive with a preposition. 

Exercise 35 
(1) Point out the substantive clause, and tell whether 
it is used as subject, subjective complement, or direct 
object: 

1. I fear that it will rain. 6. Tell me when you will go. 

2. What they say is true. 7. What you did was right. 

3. She asks if you will help. 8. Tell me why you are here. 

4. We are not what we seem. 9. That he went is certain. 

5. We maintain that right will 10. The question is, what will 

conquer. you do about it? 



68 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

(2) Point out the substantive clause and tell whether 
it is used as objective complement or appositive modi- 
fier: 

1. You may call me whatever 4. His courage has made him 

you choose. what he is. 

2. I have a feeling that he will 5. It is to be hoped that he will 

come back soon. be true to himself. 

3. We have the report that the 6. He expressed the wish that 

ship is lost. we remain here. 

(3) Point out each substantive clause and tell how it 
is used : 

Models for written exercise: 

(1) Where we shall go is the question. 

(2) The fact is that we are undecided. 

(3) It is possible that he misunderstands. 

we I shall go that we 1 are I undecided 



(1) 



Where ._ + 

+ (2) 

is ~ question fact I is ""] 



the 



The 



that he I misunderstands 



+ ■ 

(3) iL (. 



) _is_ I possible 



(The clause is underlined and is placed on a support to indicate 
its use as a single part of speech. The connecting word introducing 
the clause is indicated by a plus mark (+))• 

1. Tell me where you live. 

2. That might makes right is untrue. 

3. Men granted that his speech was wise. 

4. We know what Master laid thy keel. 

5. He has no idea that he has been chosen. 

6. Who has no cronies, had better be dead! 

7. What a man desires, he easily believes. 



CLAUSES 69 

8. Their plea was that Caesar was ambitious. 

9. Whoever lives true life, will love true love. 

10. The fool hath said in his heart, there is no God. 

11. Humanity has ever cherished the belief that man is im- 
mortal. 

12. Copernicus proved that the sun is the center of the solar 
system. 

13. It seemed (that) the loveliness of things did teach him all 
their use. 

14. The feudal theory was, that the holder of a piece of land 
was only a tenant of a lord. 

15. Tell me not in mournful numbers, 

Life is but an empty dream! 

53. Uses of Adjectival Clauses. — Note the grammatical 
use of each italicized clause: 

Do the work that is assigned you. 
He who wins must have patience. 
I stood on the spot where Warren fell. 

The clause that is assigned you is an adjectival modi- 
fier of the noun work, for it tells what work. 

The clause who wins is an adjectival modifier of the 
pronoun He, for it tells to whom the pronoun He 
refers. 

The clause where Warren fell is an adjectival modifier 
of the noun spot, for it tells what spot. 

You will note that the word modified by an adjec- 
tival clause is expressed. Hence, an adjectival clause 
is a modifier of a noun or a pronoun expressed. 

If the modified noun or pronoun is omitted, the char- 
acter of the clause is changed; thus, 

Do whatever is assigned you. 
Whoever wins must have patience. 
I stood where Warren fell. 



70 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

Whatever is assigned you is a substantive clause, for 
it is the direct object of the verb Do. 

Whoever wins is a substantive clause, for it is the 
subject of the verb-phrase must have. 

Where Warren fell is an adverbial clause, for it 
modifies the verb stood. 

Hence, if the modified noun or pronoun is omitted, 
the clause ceases to be adjectival and becomes either 
substantive or adverbial. 

Sometimes the modified noun is not omitted but is 
made a part of the modifying clause; thus, 

Do whatever work is assigned you. 

Whatever work is assigned you is likewise a substan- 
tive clause, for it is the direct object of the verb Do. 

Exercise 36 

Point out the adjectival clauses, also the noun or the 
pronoun modified by each: 

Models for written exercise: 

(1) The girl whom you see is my sister. 

(2) Here is the book for which you sent. 

(1) (2) 



girl is "| sister book 



is 



The | my 

you I see | whom 



the J Here 

you 1 sent 



for which 

1. He prayeth best who loveth best. 

2. Pity the bird that has wandered! 

3. It was the time when lilies blow. 

4. Here is the spot where the hero fell. 

5. This is a time that tries the souls of men. 

6. The soil where first they trod is holy ground. 

7. There is no reason why men should oppress each other. 






CLAUSES 71 

8. Daniel Defoe, who wrote "Robinson Crusoe," died near Lon- 
don in 1731. 

9. Many who do not care for other poetry enjoy much that 
Longfellow has written. 

10. What was it that Charlie saw to-day, 

Down in the pool where the cattle he? 

11. An ancient story I'll (will) tell you anon 

Of a notable prince that was called King John. 

12. I'd (would) not give a fig for him 

Who says that any lie is white! 

54. Uses of Adverbial Clauses. — Note the grammatical 

use of each italicized clause: 

I saw him when he was here. 
Charles is older than I am. 
He ran faster than I ran. 

The clause when he was here is an adverbial modifier 
of the verb saw, for it tells when I saw him. 

The clause than I am is an adverbial modifier of the 
adjective older, for it tells than whom, or in respect to 
whom, Charles is older. 

The clause than I ran is an adverbial modifier of the 
adverb faster, for it tells than whom, or in respect to 
whom, he ran faster. 

Accordingly, adverbial clauses, like adverbs and ad- 
verbial phrases, modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. 

Adverbial clauses denote various ideas. For examples 
of the more simple and common types, note the fol- 
lowing sentences: 

Start, boys, when the signal is given. 
Bees are found where flowers grow. 
We went because we were invited. 
They sent men that they might help us. 
I will stay longer if I am needed. 
He was so happy that he shouted aloud. 



72 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

The clause when the signal is given tells when the 
boys are to start; hence, it denotes time. 

The clause where flowers grow tells where bees are 
found; hence, it denotes place. 

The clause because we were invited tells why we went; 
hence, it denotes cause. 

The clause that they might help us tells for what pur- 
pose they sent men; hence, it denotes purpose. 

The clause if I am needed tells on what ground, or 
condition, I will stay longer; hence, it denotes condition. 

The clause that he shouted aloud tells the result of 
his being so happy; hence, it denotes result. 

Accordingly, adverbial clauses denote time, place, 
cause, purpose, condition, result, and the like. 

Exercise 37 

(1) Point out the adverbial clauses and tell the word 
modified by each: 

Models for written exercise: 

(1) As night came on, it grew chilly. 

(2) They came sooner than we had expected. 

(3) You act as if you were not well. 

(4) Though I do not understand, I obey. 

(1) (2) 

it grew chilly They 



came 



sooner 
As night I came than we I had expected 



+ J on 4- 

(3) (4) 

You I act I obey 



as if you 1 were J well 



+ not 



Though I 1 do understand 



+ ' ' not 



CLAUSES 73 

1. Sing while we may. 

2. We toil that we may live. 

3. Tyranny begins where law ends. 

4. You look as if you were very happy. 

5. If I try to escape, they surround me. 

6. When God gives, He gives with both hands. 

7. If a man is off his center, the eyes show it. 

8. I wish that people would speak as they think. 

9. He rode along the highway till he came to a town. 

10. I shall go back unless you return to camp by dark. 

11. Not as the conqueror comes, they, the true-hearted, came. 

12. We rose up early, as sleep weighs lightly on the hopeful. 

13. No person is so busy that he does not have time to think. 

14. Friendship requires more time than poor busy men can 
usually command. 

15. As the Spanish Armada sailed around Scotland, a terrible 
storm arose. 

16. Voice after voice took up the song, until its tender passion 
rose like an anthem. 

(2) Tell the idea expressed by each adverbial clause in 
the first twelve of the foregoing sentences. 

Exercise 38 

Point out each substantive, adjectival, or adverbial 
clause and tell its grammatical use: 

I. 

1. (a) Tell us who told you this. (6) Tell us the person who 
told you this. 

2. (a) I saw the place where he lives. (6) I saw where he lives. 

3. (a) Come when I can talk with you. (b) Come at a time 
when I can talk with you. 

4. (a) Do you know when he was born? (b) Do you know the 
day on which he was born? (c) Do you know on what day he was 
born? 

5. (a) We know the man that spoke, (b) We know that the 
man spoke, (c) He came here that he might speak, 



74 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

II. 

1. I do not know what I shall reply. 

2. Many men fail because they lack purpose. 

3. While mortals sleep, the angels keep their watch. 

4. Aladdin, who was near by, hastily snatched the lamp. 

5. It was, indeed, a morning that might have made any one happy. 

6. When he got up in the morning, there was no bread in the 
house. 

7. He thought a strange shadow had suddenly come across the 
blue sky. 

8. As he raised the flask, he saw a little child panting by the 
roadside. 

9. Ah, if that river were really all gold, what a nice thing it 
would be! 

10. What had been the richest soil in the kingdom became a 
shifting heap of red sand. 

11. The water which is found in the vessel of mercy is holy, 
though it had been defiled with corpses. 

12. When he cast the three drops of dew into the stream, there 
opened where they fell a small circular whirlpool, into which the 
waters descended with a musical sound. 

55. Principal and Subordinate Clauses. — Clauses are 
also classified according to their rank in the sentence. 
Note the following example: 

He was here when I came. 

The foregoing sentence contains two clauses, which 
are of different rank: 

(1) The clause He was here is of the first rank, 
because it makes an independent statement. A clause 
that makes an independent statement or assertion is 
called a principal clause, the term principal meaning 
"of the first rank." 

A principal clause is a clause that makes an independ- 
ent statement or assertion. 






CLAUSES 75 

A principal clause is also called an independent clause. 

(2) The clause when I came is of lower rank, because 
it has the use of a single part of speech, namely, an 
adverb. A clause that has the use of a single part of 
speech is called a subordinate clause, the term subordi- 
nate meaning "of a lower rank." 

A subordinate clause is a clause that has the use of a 
single part of speech. 

A subordinate clause is also called a dependent clause. 

All substantive, adjectival, and adverbial clauses are 
subordinate, or dependent, as they have the use of a 
single part of speech. All other clauses are principal, 
or independent. 

Subordinate clauses are introduced in two ways: 

(1) By subordinating conjunctions; as, if, unless, 
because , since, for, though, that, lest, whether, etc. 

(2) By certain pronouns and adverbs having a con- 
junctive force; as, who, which, what, that, when, where, 
why, how, etc. 

Sometimes a principal clause is incomplete within 
itself and is completed by the subordinate clause; thus, 

That it was cold is evident. 

Exercise 39 

(1) Point out the principal clauses in Exercise 38. 

(2) Point out the clauses in the following sentences, 
and tell the rank of each, whether principal or sub- 
ordinate : 

1. Let us go home while we may. 

2. I hardly understand what you mean. 

3. Now I sit and muse on what may be. 

4. Men create oppositions which are not. 



76 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

5. He turned to the squire who stood near him. 

6. There is no such flatterer as is a man's self. 

7. As the wonderful melody filled the air, the walls arose. 

8. She doeth little kindnesses, which most leave undone or 
despise. 

9. Let a man beware how he keeps company with quarrelsome 
persons. 

10. Whoever is delighted in solitude is either a wild beast or a 
god. 

11. If the hill will not come to Mahomet, Mahomet will go to 
the hill. 

12. He must needs be a wise man, because he speaks so much of 
himself. 

13. My son, you seem to have forgotten that your father was 
only a poor tailor. 

14. He hid himself behind a door from which he could see the 
Princess as she passed. 

15. The first thing that Pandora saw, when she entered the cot- 
tage where Epimetheus dwelt, was a great box. 

56. Coordinate Clauses. — A sentence may contain two 
or more clauses of the same rank and use. Note the 
following examples: 

We were ready, but we did not go because it rained. 
We admit that you are right and that we are wrong. 

Two clauses of the first sentence, namely, We are 
ready and we did not go, are of the same rank and use, 
for both are principal clauses. 

Two clauses of the second sentence, namely, that you 
are right and that we are wrong, are of the same rank 
and use, for both are substantive clauses used as the 
direct object of the verb admit. 

Clauses of the same rank and use in the sentence are 
called coordinate clauses, the term coordinate meaning 
"of the same order. " 



CLAUSES 77 

Coordinate clauses are clauses of the same rank and 
use in the sentence. 

Coordinate clauses are connected by the conjunctions 
and, but, or, nor, for, and their equivalents. These con- 
junctions are therefore called coordinating conjunctions. 

Exercise 40 

Point out the coordinate clauses and tell the rank of 
each, whether principal or subordinate: 

1. I think I saw him, but I do not know it. 

2. What you do, not what you profess, counts here. 

3. Men may come and men may go, but I go on forever. 

4. When cats run home and light is come, 

And dew is cold upon the ground, 
And the far-off stream is dumb, 
And the whirring sail goes round; 

Alone and warming his five wits, 

The white owl in the belfry sits. 

5. His hair is crisp, and black, and long, 

His face is like the tan; 
His brow is wet with honest sweat, 

He earns whate'er he can, 
And looks the whole world in the face, 

For he owes not any man. 

6. We know what Master laid thy keel, 
What workmen wrought thy ribs of steel, 

Who made each mast, and sail, and rope, 
What anvils rang, what hammers beat, 
In what a forge and what a heat 

Were shaped the anchors of thy hope! 

57. Essential and Non-essential Clauses. — A subordi- 
nate clause may be so closely related to the clause on 
which it depends that it cannot be omitted without 
leaving the thought incomplete. Note these examples: 



78 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

Here is the book that I lost. 
I am so tired that I cannot go. 

The clause that I lost is essential to the expression of 
the thought of the clause Here is the book, for it tells 
what book is meant. 

The clause that I cannot go is essential to the expres- 
sion of the thought of the clause J am so tired, for it 
tells how tired I am and what the result is. 

A subordinate clause essential to the expression of the 
thought of the clause on which it depends is called an 
essential clause. 

On the other hand, a subordinate clause may supply 
additional information, but, at the same time, not be 
essential to the expression of the thought of the clause 
on which it depends; thus, 

I failed to see Henry, who was away. 
He works hard, though he is not strong. 

A subordinate clause not essential to the expression 
of the thought of the clause on which it depends is 
called a non-essential clause. 

An essential clause is a subordinate clause essential to 
the expression of the thought of the clause on which 
it depends. 

A non-essential clause is a subordinate clause not 
essential to the expression of the thought of the clause 
on which it depends. 

An essential clause, unless noticeably out of its nat- 
ural order in the sentence, is not usually set off by 
punctuation. 

A non-essential clause is usually set off by punctua- 
tion from the clause on which it depends. 



CLAUSES 79 

Exercise 41 

Point out each subordinate clause, and tell whether 
it is essential or non-essential, giving a reason in each 
case : 

1. We know that he is interested. 

2. Here is the place where we shall stop. 

3. Murder, though it have no tongue, will speak. 

4. Thrice noble is the man who of himself is king. 

5. We came to a very dry place, where there was no grass. 

6. By and by there came other people who chanced to have no 
homes. 

7. Europa is still the rosy child who ran to gather flowers so 
many years ago. 

8. He waited but a few moments, when he began to see a sight, 
which was a great marvel. 

9. They made continual inquiry if any one could tell them what 
had become of Europa. 

10. At length they came within full sight of the palace, which 
proved to be very large and lofty. 



Chapter IX 

KINDS OF SENTENCE AS TO FORM 

We have seen that sentences, classified according to 
their meaning, are of four kinds: declarative (3), inter- 
rogative (4), imperative (5), and exclamatory (6). We shall 
now see that sentences, classified according to their 
form, or structure, are of three kinds: simple, compound, 
and complex. 

58. Simple Sentence. — Note the following examples: 

(1) Andrew is my brother. 

(2) He and I are brothers. 

(3) They sang and played. 

(4) The boys and the girls sang and played. 

Each of the foregoing sentences consists of one sub- 
ject and one predicate. The subject of the second sen- 
tence is compound; the predicate of the third sentence 
is compound; while both the subject and the predicate 
of the fourth sentence are compound. A sentence con- 
sisting of one subject and one predicate, either or both 
of which may be compound, is called a simple sentence. 

A simple sentence is a sentence consisting of one sub- 
ject and one predicate, either or both of which may be 
compound. 

Exercise 42 

Show that each sentence in Exercises 5 and 6 is a 
simple sentence. 

59. Compound Sentence. — Note the following sentence: 

Some have too much, yet still they crave; 
I have little, yet I seek no more. 
80 



KINDS OF SENTENCES AS TO FORM 81 

The foregoing sentence contains four clauses, each of 
which is a principal, or independent, clause. A sen- 
tence containing two or more principal clauses is called 
a compound sentence. 

A compound sentence is a sentence containing two or 
more principal clauses. 

Exercise 43 

Tell which of the sentences in Exercises 34 and 40 
are compound, and point out the clauses of each. 

60. Complex Sentence. — Note the following sentence: 

He who tells a lie is not sensible how great 
a task he undertakes. 

The foregoing sentence contains one principal clause, 
He is not sensible; and two subordinate clauses, who 
tells a lie and how great a task he undertakes. A sen- 
tence containing one or more subordinate clauses is 
called a complex sentence. 

A complex sentence is a sentence containing one or 
more subordinate clauses. 

One subordinate clause may depend upon another 
subordinate clause; thus, 

He asked that we should wait until he should return. 

Sometimes a complex sentence contains two or more 
principal clauses; thus, 

When I awoke, it was broad daylight, the weather was clear, 
and the storm had abated. 

The foregoing sentence contains four clauses, the 
first of which is subordinate, the rest are principal. A 
complex sentence containing two or more principal 
clauses is sometimes called a compound-complex sentence. 



82 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

Exercise 44 

Point out the complex sentences in Exercise 34, and 
tell which clauses are principal and which are sub- 
ordinate. 

Exercise 45 

Tell whether each of the following sentences is 
simple, compound, or complex. Point out the clauses, 
and tell the rank of each, whether principal or sub- 
ordinate. 

1. I hate to see things done by halves. 

2. It seems there was a sly cat in the house. 

3. Be not simply good; be good for something. 

4. No man is free who does not command himself. 

5. There was a pretty garden around their house. 

6. Where lies the land to which the ship would go? 

7. Thou'rt gone, the abyss of heaven hath swallowed up thy 
form. 

8. The manly part is to do with might and main what you 
can do. 

9. Morocco leather is made from goatskin and is tanned with 
sumac. 

10. Day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto night showeth 
knowledge. 

11. I have but one lamp by which my feet are guided, and that 
is the lamp of experience. 

12. The day dawned, the cock crowed, but nobody tapped at the 
door of the governor. 

13. Never was a summer night more calm to the eye, nor a gale 
of autumn louder to the ear. 

14. A good deed is never lost; he who sows courtesy, reaps 
friendship; he who plants kindness, gathers love. 

15. During the feudal days the chief luxury of the poor was 
honey; and the well-to-do peasants often had a hive of bees in 
their garden plot. 



KINDS OF SENTENCES AS TO FORM 83 

61. Elliptical Sentences. — Sometimes one or more 
words of a sentence may be omitted without affecting 
the thought; thus, 

Thank you, Mary. (7 thank you, Mary.) 

Why not go, boys? (Why will you not go, boys?) 

What if I refuse? (What will you do if I refuse?) 

Good day, sir. (God give you good day, sir.) 

All aboard. (Let all get aboard.) 

This is mine; that, (is) yours. 

He came, but I do not know when (he came). 

While (I was) out riding, I was caught in a storm. 

The omission of one or more words of a sentence is 
called an ellipsis, a term meaning a a leaving out." 

A sentence of which one or more words are omitted 
is called an elliptical sentence. 

An elliptical sentence is a sentence of which one or more 
words are omitted. 

A clause of which one or more words are omitted is 
called an elliptical clause. 

Clauses introduced by than and as (denoting a com- 
parison) are usually elliptical; thus, 

Mary is older than her sister (is old). 
You are not so tall as John (is tall). 

Sometimes the introductory word of a subordinate 
clause is omitted; thus, 

He said (that) he wished to speak to you. 
The boy (that or whom) you see is my brother. 
Had I (7/ 7 had) known it, I would have been there. 

Answers to questions are frequently elliptical; thus, 

Who told you this? — James (told me this). 
Will you go with us?— Yes, I will (go with you). 



84 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

Exercise 46 

(1) Tell which words of the following sentences may- 
be omitted without affecting the thought: 

1. Will you help? — Yes, I will 6. He returned, but I do not 

help. know when he returned. 

2. Why will you not do this for 7. This is a larger house than 

me? that house is large. 

3. You write better than I 8. God give you good morning, 

write. my friends. 

4. I am glad that you are satis- 9. When you are in Rome, do 

fied. as Rome does. 

5. I do not know what I am to 10. This book is as interesting as 

say to him. that book is interesting. 

(2) Supply the omitted word or words in each of the 
following sentences: 

1. What is colder than ice? 7. I will be there if convenient. 

2. While in the city, we had a 8. Some one, I do not recall 

fine time. who, told me. 

3. Are you as strong as he? 9. He is large but not strong. 

4. What if he does not arrive in 10. I go but I do not know why. 

time? 11. It is you he calls. 

5. I am not so old as you. 12. This belongs to me; that, to 

6. He said he was not fully pre- William. 

pared. 



Chapter X 

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 

62. Analysis Defined. — The process of separating a 
sentence into its various parts, or elements, in order to 
show the relation of part to part is called analysis, a 
term meaning "an unloosing, or a breaking up." 

Analysis is the process of separating a sentence into 
its various elements in order to show the relation of 
part to part. 

The analysis of a sentence may be either oral or 
written. The most convenient method of written analysis 
is by diagram. Analysis by diagram also has the advan- 
tage of picturing, so to speak, the various relations. 

63. Analysis of Simple Sentences. — Observe the fol- 
lowing directions for the analysis of a simple sentence: 

1. Classify the sentence. 

2. Point out the main parts — complete subject and 
complete predicate. 

3. Point out the essential parts — subject substan- 
tive, predicate verb, and complement if found. 

4. Point out the modifiers of : 

a. The subject substantive. 

b. The predicate verb. 

c. The complement is found. 

5. Point out the connectives. 

6. Point out the independent elements if found. 

Model for oral and written analysis: 

A friend may well be reckoned the masterpiece of nature. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. The complete 
subject is A friend; the complete predicate, may well be 

85 



86 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 



reckoned the masterpiece of nature. The subject substan- 
tive is friend; the predicate verb, may be reckoned; the 
subjective complement, masterpiece. Friend is modified 
by the adjective A; may be reckoned by the adverb 
well; masterpiece by the adjective the and by the ad- 
jectival phrase of nature. Of is a preposition used with 
the noun nature. 

Models for analysis by diagram: 

(1) A friend may well be reckoned the masterpiece of nature. 



friend 

"IT 



may be reckoned ] masterpiece 



well 



the 
of 



nature 



(2) James and Henry are brothers but do not look very much alike. 
James are brothers 



and 
Henry 



but 



do look alike 



much 



not 

I very 

(3) The bay was clear, smooth, and white with silent light. 

clear 



bay 



The 



was 



J 



(and) 
smooth 



and 
white 



with light 



silent 



(4) The accident left the poor man blind and lame. 

r blind 
accident left 



The 



and 
lame 



man 



the 
poor 



(Note that the plus sign is placed over the conjunction to show 
that it joins elements of equal rank.) 






ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 



87 



Exercise 47 
Analyze the sentences in Exercise 18. 

64. Analysis of Compound Sentences. — Observe the fol- 
lowing directions for the analysis of a compound sen- 
tence : 

1. Classify the sentence. 

2. Point out the clauses and tell how they are con- 
nected. 

3. Analyze each clause as you would analyze a simple 

sentence. 

Model for oral or written analysis: 

His whole face glowed like a furnace, and his eyes twinkled and 
flashed at sight of the rosaries and crosses. 

This is a compound declarative sentence. It con- 
tains two clauses: His whole face glowed like a furnace 
and his eyes twinkled and flashed at sight of the rosaries 
and crosses. And connects the two clauses. 

The complete subject of the first clause is His whole 
face; the complete predicate, etc. 
Model for analysis by diagram: 
face ! glowed 



His 
whole 



like 



and 



(to) furnace 



eyes 



his 



twinkled 



and 
flashed 








rosaries 






at sight 














of 






and 
crosses 








| the 



88 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

Exercise 48 

Analyze the compound sentences in Exercise 45. 

65. Analysis of Complex Sentences. — Observe the fol- 
lowing directions for the analysis of a complex sentence: 

1. Classify the sentence. 

2. Point out the clauses and tell the rank of each, 
whether principal or subordinate. 

3. Follow directions 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 for the analysis 
of simple sentences (63), analyzing the subordinate 
clause or clauses last. 

4. If the sentence is compound-complex, first sepa- 
rate it into its larger members, and then analyze each 
member according to the directions already given. 

Models for oral or written analysis: 

(1) If the Lenope are so skillful, why is one of their bravest 
warriors here? 

This is a complex interrogative sentence. It contains 
two clauses: the principal clause why is one of their 
bravest warriors here and the subordinate clause if the 
Lenope are so skillful. If connects the two clauses. 

The complete subject of the sentence is one of their 
bravest warriors; the complete predicate, why is here, 
If the Lenope are so skillful. The subject substantive is 
one; the predicate verb, is. One is modified by the 
adjectival phrase of their bravest warriors. Of is a prep- 
osition used with the noun warriors. Their and bravest 
are adjectival modifiers of warriors. Is is modified by 
the adverbs why and here and by the adverbial clause 
If the Lenope are so skillful. 

The complete subject of the adverbial clause is the 
Lenope; the complete predicate, are so skillful, etc, 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 



89 



(2) It is the mind that makes the man, and our vigor is in the 
immortal soul. 

This is a compound-complex declarative sentence. It 
contains two main members: It is the mind that makes 
the man and our vigor is in our immortal soul. And 
connects the two members. 

The first member contains two clauses: the principal 
clause It is the mind and the subordinate clause that 
makes the man. That connects the two clauses. The 
complete subject of the first clause, etc. 

The second member is a principal clause. The com- 
plete subject, etc. 

Models for analysis by diagram: 



(1) 












one is 






\ 


of warriors 


why 
here 








their 






bravest 


If 


Lenope 


are | skillful 




+ 


| the 


1 J 1 

1 so 


(5 
I 




^ (the thing) 

that makes 1 man 


and 


Jl"1 


mind 
"[The 




+ | the 




vigor 
| our 


1 


is 
Jin 


soul 




1 




the 














immortal 



Exercise 49 
Analyze the complex sentences in Exercise 45, 



90 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 

Exercise 50 
Analyze the following sentences: 

1: The cause of freedom is the cause of God. 

2. Prosperity makes friends and adversity tries them. 

3. The chief glory of every people arises from its authors. 

4. Sail on, Union, strong and great! 

5. He makes no friends who never made a foe. 

6. I was eyes to the blind, and feet was I to the lame. 

7. By far the best proof is experience. 

8. What is play to the cat is death to the mouse. 

9. There is no darkness but (except) ignorance. 

10. A scholar may be a well-bred man, or he may not. 

11. Any man can hold to the helm when the sea is calm. 

12. How can a man be a god when he cannot get bread to eat? 

13. Never make a defence or apology before you are accused. 

14. Talk to him of Jacob's ladder, and he would ask the number 
of steps. 

15. How much we forgive in those who yield us the rare spec- 
tacle of heroic manners. 

16. A man finds room in the few square inches of the face for 
the traits of all his ancestors. 

17. Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and 
writing an exact man. 

18. He smote the rock of our national resources, and abundant 
streams of revenue gushed forth. 

19. There is a look by which a man shows he is going to say a 
good thing, and a look when he has said it. 

20. Cato wondered how that city was preserved wherein a fish 
was sold for more than an ox. 

21. A man who is sure of his point carries a broad and con- 
tented expression, which everybody reads. 

22. Who falls in honorable strife, 
Surrenders nothing but his life. 

23. 'Tis the star-spangled banner, oh long may it wave 
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave! 

24. The evil that men do lives after them; 
The good is often interred with their bones. 



SUMMARY OF THE SENTENCE 91 

SUMMARY OF THE SENTENCE 

I. Kinds of Sentence 



1. 


As to Meaning 




a. Declarative (3) 




b. Interrogative (4) 




c. Imperative (5) 




d. Exclamatory (6) 


2. 


As to Form 




a. Simple (58) 




b. Compound (59) 




c. Complex (60) 


II. Units of Sentence 


1. 


Words 




a. Substantive: Nouns (13), Pronouns (14) 




b. Predicating: Verbs (16), Verb-Phrases (16) 




c. Modifying: Adjectives (15), Adverbs (17) 




d. Connecting: Prepositions (18), Conjunctions (19) 




e. Exclamatory: Interjections (20) 




/. Verbal: Infinitives (22), Participles (23), Gerunds (24) 


2. 


Phrases (45) 




a. Substantive (46) 




6. Adjectival (46) 




c. Adverbial (46) 


3. 


Clauses (50) 




a. Principal (55) 




6. Subordinate (55) 




(1) Substantive (51) 




(2) Adjectival (51) 




(3) Adverbial (51) 




c. Coordinate (56) 




(1) Principal (56) 




(2) Subordinate (56) 


III. Parts of Sentence 


1. 


Main Parts 




a. Subject (7) 




Compound (8) 




b. Predicate (7) 




Compound (9) 



92 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 



2. Essential Parts 


• ■ 


a. Subject Substantive (26) 




b. Predicate Verb (27) 




c. Complement (29) 




(1) Subjective (31) 




(a) Substantive: 




Word (31), Phrase (47), Clause (52) 


(b) Adjectival: Word (31), Phrase (48) 


(2) Direct Object (32) 




Substantive: 




Word (32), Phrase (47), Clause (52) 


(3) Objective (34) 




Word (34), Phrase (48), 


Clause (52) 


3. Modifiers 




a. Adjectival (35) 




(1) Adjectives*(15) • 




(2) Participles (23) 




(3) Possessive (36) 




(4) Appositive (37) 




Word (37), Phrase (47), 


Clause (52) 


(5) Phrases (46, 48) 




(6) Clauses (51, 53). 




b. Adverbial (35) 




(1) Adverbs (17) 




(2) Indirect Object (38) 




(3) Phrases (46, 49) 




(4) Clauses (51, 54) 





4. Connectives 

a. Prepositions (18) 

b. Conjunctions (19) 

c. With Conjunctive Force: Pronouns (55), Adverbs (55) 

5. Independent Elements 

a. Words of Address (41) 

b. Exclamations (42) 

(1) Interjections (20) 

(2) With Inter jectional Force (42) : Words, Phrases 

c. Parenthetical Expressions (43) 

d. Pleonasm (44) . 



PART TWO 

PARTS OF SPEECH 

Chapter I 

NOUNS 

66. Kinds of Nouns. — We have learned (13) that a 
noun is the name of anything, whether person, place, 
or thing. 

Nouns are divided into two main classes — proper 
nouns and common nouns. 

There are two special classes of common nouns — 
collective nouns and abstract nouns. 

We shall now examine into these different classes. 

67. Proper Nouns. — Such nouns as James, Mary, 
Evangeline, Pike's Peak, Richmond, Monday, August, 
are names not common to a class, but belonging to a 
particular person, place, or thing. The name of a par- 
ticular person, place, or thing is called a proper noun, 
the term proper meaning " belonging to one." 

A proper noun is the name of a particular person, 
place, or thing. 

In writing we always capitalize a proper noun, as in 
the foregoing examples. 

68. Common Nouns. — Such nouns as boy, girl, dog, 
cat, robin, rose, lily, oak, river, are names not belonging 
to a particular person, place, or thing, but applying in 
common to any member of a class. A name apply- 
ing in common to any member of a class is called a 
common noun. 

93 



94 PARTS OF SPEECH 

A common noun is a name applying in common to 
any member of a class. 

In writing, we begin common nouns with a small 
letter, as in the foregoing examples. 

Exercise 51 

With the aid of a newspaper, or other printed matter, 
prepare for the class a list of: 

10 proper nouns. 
15 common nouns. 

69. Common Nouns Used as Proper Nouns. — Common 
nouns sometimes have the force of proper nouns, and, 
accordingly, are capitalized. Note the following kinds: 

(1) Common nouns denoting well-known persons or 

things; thus, 

Have you seen the President? 
Who is Speaker of the House? 
He is a member of Congress. 
The Court has ordered this. 

Such words, however, are often begun with small let- 
ters; thus, 

Here comes the mayor of the city. 
The governor is now at the capitol. 

(2) The words north, south, east, and west when they 
name parts of the country; thus, 

He moved from the North to the South. 

If these words denote direction or the points of the 
compass, they are not capitalized; thus, 

The line runs north seventy rods. 
The earth turns from west to east. 



NOUNS 95 

(3) Nouns denoting kinship, as father , mother, brother, 
sister, uncle, aunt, cousin, when used with a proper 
name or without a possessive modifier; thus, 

Have you seen Uncle William? 
Here come Father and Sister. 

If these words are used without a proper name and 
with a possessive modifier, they are not capitalized; 
thus, 

Here come my father and my sister. 

Exercise 52 

(1) Explain why the italicized nouns are capitalized 
or are not capitalized: 

1. Have you read the Constitu- 6. I am spending a month with 

tionf Grandmother. 

2. They moved to the West. 7. Our grandmother is ill. 

3. The storm came from the 8. They have made Cousin 

west. James Chairman of the 

4. The General is a friend of Board. 

Father's. 9. Doctor Miller is Head of the 

5. Here comes Aunt Lucy. Department of History. 

10. The Faculty is invited. 

(2) Tell which of the foregoing nouns may be begun 
with a small letter. 

(3) Compose sentences illustrating the use of mother, 
brother, and cousin, first as proper nouns, then as common. 

(4) Compose sentences illustrating the use of east and 
south, first as proper nouns, then as common. 

70. Collective Nouns. — Note these examples: 

He joined his company in France. 
We saw a large flock of geese. 
The jury has rendered its verdict. 



96 PARTS OF SPEECH 

Each of the italicized nouns is the name of a collec- 
tion of persons or things. A noun of this kind never 
applies to a single person or thing. The name of a 
collection of persons or things rather than of a single 
person or, thing is called a collective noun. 

A collective noun is the name of a collection of per- 
sons or things rather than of a single person or thing. 

In using a collective noun, we may speak of the col- 
lection as a whole, as a jury, this people; or we may 
speak of the individuals making up the collection, as 
ten people (ten persons). 

71. Abstract Nouns. — Note these examples: 

He is a man of honor. He is very fond of skating. 

We cannot do without sleep. What is the height of the tree? 

The italicized nouns are names not of objects, but of 
certain attributes of objects. For instance, honor is the 
name of a quality, sleep of a condition, skating of an 
action, height of a relation. Each of these attributes is 
spoken of as if it existed apart from the object to which 
it belongs. The name of a quality, condition, action, or 
relation is called an abstract noun, the term abstract 
meaning " taken, or considered, apart from." 

An abstract noun is the name of a quality, condition, 
action, or relation. 

Exercise 53 

(1) Pick out the collective nouns and the abstract 
nouns from the following list of common nouns: 

elephant crowd family race weight committee 

company mouth nation tribe church corn 

goodness loudness water iron state council 

death largeness wetness flock firmness bravery 



NOUNS 



97 



(2) Tell a quality, condition, action, or relation sug- 
gested by each object named below: 

sky mountain field boy 

hero money school horse 

72. Compound Nouns. — The noun sewing-machine is 
formed by combining the two words sewing and ma- 
chine. Many nouns are formed by combining two or 
more words. A noun formed by combining two or more 
words is called a compound noun. 

Sometimes the different words of a compound noun 
are connected by the hyphen (-); as, man-of-war, 
Stratford-on-Avon. 

Often, however, the different words of compound 
nouns are so fully blended that no hyphen is used; as, 
railway, housewife, penman. 

Exercise 54 

With the aid of a dictionary combine the following 
words into compound nouns, using the hyphen when 
needed : 

meeting house 
merry making 
milk man 
moon shine 
dew drop 
dock yard 
door way 
dread naught 
earth work 
egg plant 

73. Phrasal Nouns. — In naming a particular person, 
place, or thing, we often employ a group of words; as, 
Rip Van Winkle, Gulf of Mexico, Uncle Tom's Cabin. 



pick pocket 
pepper mint 
mother in law 
commander in chief 
post master general 
court martial 
court plaster 
jury man 
key hole 
knee pan 



gang way 
lamp black 
gas light 
assembly man 
son in law 
attorney at law 
school house 
flying machine 
key board 
rocking chair 



98 PARTS OF SPEECH 

A name or title consisting of a group of words is a 
phrasal noun. The following kinds of phrasal nouns 
may be noted: 

(1) Names consisting of only proper nouns; as, 
Daniel Webster, James Fenimore Cooper. 

(2) Names consisting of a common noun and a dis- 
tinguishing word; as, Queen Victoria, Red River. 

(3) Titles of books, poems, stories, periodicals, docu- 
ments, and the like, which may consist of various parts 
of speech; as, The Man Without a Country, The Ladies' 
Home Journal, A Man's a Man for a' That 

Exercise 55 

Point out the phrasal nouns in the following sen- 
tences : 

1. The Thirty Years' War ended in 1648. 

2. Sir Walter Scott wrote The Lady of the Lake. 

3. Benjamin Franklin founded The Saturday Evening Post. 

4. The Comedy All's Well That Ends WeU was written by Wil- 
liam Shakespeare. 

5. Louisa May Alcott wrote Little Women, Little Men, Jo's 
Boys, and other juvenile stories. 

6. Oliver Goldsmith's romantic novel, The Vicar of Wakefield, 
brought the author only sixty pounds. 

7. The nickname "The New Roof" was applied to the Federal 
Constitution about the time of its adoption. 

8. The Dutch Colony of New Netherlands was founded by Henry 
Hudson, an Englishman in the employ of The Dutch East India 
Company. 

74. Capitalization of Phrasal Nouns. — The following 
facts are to be noted as to the capitalization of phrasal 
nouns : 

(1) All proper nouns in names or titles are capital- 
ized; as, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. 



NOUNS 99 

(2) Titles of office or honor are capitalized; as, Gen- 
eral Lee, Doctor Walker, Miss Anderson. 

Words, however, denoting the ordinary callings are 
not capitalized; as, engineer Davis, conductor Miller. 

(3) Usage differs as to the capitalization of such 
names as Ohio River, Mediterranean Sea, Arctic Ocean. 
Some writers capitalize the common noun, as in the 
foregoing examples; some do not capitalize the common 
noun, as Ohio river. 

(4) In the titles of books, poems, and the like, all 
important words are capitalized; as, Ode to the West 
Wind. 

A, an, and the are capitalized only when they begin 
a title; as, A Tale of Two Cities, The Fairy Prince. 

Prepositions and conjunctions are capitalized only 
when they begin a title or are long; as, To a Skylark, 
The Man Without a Country. 

Exercise 56 

(1) Look up five names like Atlantic Ocean, Missis- 
sippi River, in a standard geography or other book, and 
note whether or not the common noun is capitalized. 

(2) Look up five titles of books, stories, poems, docu- 
ments, or the like, in a standard book, and note the 
capitalization. 

(3) Supply the needed capitals in the following sen- 
tences, and give a reason with each: 

1. Bound lake Ontario. 

2. Where is captain brown? 

3. They live in new york city. 

4. She visited Washington state. 

5. What did the apostle paul write? 

6. Name the tributaries of the missouri river. 



100 PARTS OF SPEECH 

7. Have you read rebecca of sunnybrook farm by kate douglas 
wiggin? 

8. The poet cowper wrote a touching little poem entitled on 
the receipt of my mother's picture. 

75. Inflection of Nouns. — We have learned (25) that 
inflection is a change in the form of a word to show a 
change in its meaning or use. Nouns are inflected for 
gender, number, and case. 

As we shall see, the distinction of gender, number, 
and case is also based on the use of the word. 



Gender 

76. Gender Defined. — Note these examples: 

(1) My uncle is here. He is a writer. 

(2) My aunt is here. She is a teacher. 

(3) That is a house. The bird loves its young. 

The foregoing nouns and pronouns may be divided 
into three classes with regard to sex: 

(1) Nouns and pronouns denoting male beings, as 
uncle, He, writer. 

(2) Nouns and pronouns denoting female beings, as 
aunt, She, teacher. 

(3) Nouns and pronouns denoting objects without 
sex, as That, house; or beings whose sex is not regarded, 
as bird, its. 

The distinction among nouns and pronouns with 
regard to sex is called gender, a term meaning "kind." 

A noun or pronoun that denotes a male being is said 
to be of masculine gender, or masculine. 

A noun or pronoun that denotes a female being is 
said to be of feminine gender, or feminine. 



NOUNS 



101 



A noun or pronoun that denotes an object without 
sex, or a being whose sex is not regarded, is said to be 
of neuter gender, or neuter. The term neuter means 
"neither"; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. 

Gender is a distinction among nouns and pronouns 
with regard to sex. 

A noun or pronoun of masculine gender is one that 
denotes a male being. 

A noun or pronoun of feminine gender is one that 
denotes a female being. 

A noun or pronoun of neuter gender is one that 
denotes an object without sex, or a being whose sex is 
not regarded. 

77. Ways of Distinguishing Gender. — Nouns of fem- 
inine gender are distinguished from nouns of masculine 
gender in the following ways: 

(1) By adding the feminine suffix ess to the mascu- 
line form, which is sometimes slightly changed when 
ess is added; thus, 



Masculine 


Feminine 


Masculine 


Feminine 


actor 


actress 


Jew 


Jewess 


baron 


baroness 


lad 


lass 


benefactor 


benefactress 


launderer 


laundress 


count 


countess 


lion 


lioness 


duke 


duchess 


marquis 


marchioness 


emperor 


empress 


master 


mistress 


giant 


giantess 


preceptor 


preceptress 


god 


goddess 


prince 


princess 


heir 


heiress 


prophet 


prophetess 


host 


hostess 


shepherd 


shepherdess 


hunter 


huntress 


tiger 


tigress 


idolater 


idolatress 


waiter 


waitress 



102 



PARTS OF SPEECH 



(2) By retaining the foreign forms in English; thus, 



Masculine 


Feminine 


Masculine 


Feminine 


administrator administratrix 


Francis 


Frances 


alumnus 


alumna 


hero 


heroine 


Augustus 


Augusta 


Joseph 


Josephine 


beau 


belle 


Louis 


Louise 


Charles 


Charlotte 


monsieur 


madame 


czar 


czarina 


signor 


signora 


don 


donna 


sultan 


sultana 


executor 


executrix 


testator 


testatrix 


(3) By 


the use of compounds; thus, 




Masculine 


Feminine 


Masculine 


Feminine 


cock-sparrow hen-sparrow 


man-servant 


maid-servant 


he-bear 


she-bear 


peacock 


peahen 


he-goat 


she-goat 


salesman 


saleswoman 


(4) By 


the use of different words; thus 


>> 


Masculine 


Feminine 


Masculine 


Feminine 


bachelor 


maid 


husband 


wife 


brother 


sister 


king 


queen 


buck 


doe 


lord 


lady 


bull 


cow 


monk 


nun 


cock 


hen 


nephew 


niece 


drake 


duck 


papa 


mama, mamma 


earl 


countess 


ram 


ewe 


father 


mother 


son 


daughter 


gander 


goose 


stag 


hind 


hart 


hind 


uncle 


aunt 


horse 


mare 


wizard 


witch 



(5) By the use of an accompanying part of speech, as 
the pronouns he and she: thus, 

He was a great painter. (Painter here is masculine.) 
This painter loves her art. (Painter here is feminine.) 



NOUNS 



103 



Many nouns have the same form for persons of 
either sex, as painter in the foregoing examples. 

Sometimes the gender of words having the same 
form for persons of either sex is indeterminate from the 
information given; as, I do not know what writer he 
means. 

Sometimes the reference is to persons of either sex 

without distinction; thus, 

Teachers should love their work. 

All persons are liable to make mistakes. 

Not a single inhabitant of the city escaped. 

Nouns referring to persons of either sex without dis- 
tinction are sometimes said to be of common gender. 

As woman's sphere grows, there is a tendency in our language to 
attach less and less importance to the distinction of sex in nouns 
applying to the callings and professions. Such masculine forms as 
doctor, author, poet, instructor, are now freely applied to persons of 
either sex; while the corresponding feminine forms, as doctress, 
authoress, poetess, instructress, are being less and less used. 







Exercise 57 






(1) Point out the 


masculine 


nouns, the 


feminine 


nouns, and the nouns 


applying to either sex. 


Tell the 


form corresponding to each masculine noun 


and each 


feminine 


noun, if there is one: 






lass 


poetess 


peafowl 


agriculturist 


son 


youth 


witch 


peahen 


singer 


runner 


maiden 


czar 


Jew 


songstress 


worker 


aunt 


donna 


walker 


actor 


debutante 


writer 


hind 


pianist 


waitress 


marquis 


teacher 


buck 


modiste 


negro 


empress 


lawyer 


rabbit 


master 


sheep 


duke 


conductor 


goat 


seamstress 


ram 


count 


laundress 


nanny-goat 


farmer 


cousin 


preacher 



104 PARTS OF SPEECH 

(2) Tell the gender of each noun in these sentences: 

1. The child cried for its mother. 

2. James and Mary are visiting their aunt. 

3. The soldiers threw away their arms and fled. 

4. The stranger trembled as he approached the general. 

5. If Mother Earth had not been kind to us, we might all have 
been giants. 

6. Ernest began to speak, giving to the people of what was in his 
heart and mind. 

7. Ulysses had the good luck to kill a large stag by thrusting his 
spear into its back. 

8. The child had declared that she would not taste a mouthful of 
food as long as she should be compelled to remain in King Pluto's 
palace. 

Number 
78. Number Defined. — Note these examples: 

(1) I see a tree. I see many trees. 

(2) I caught a fish. He caught ten fish. 

The words tree and trees show by their form whether 
they denote one or more than one. 

The word fish shows by its use whether it denotes 
one or more than one. 

The form or use of a word that denotes one or more 
than one is called number. 

A word that denotes one is said to be of singular 
number, or singular. 

A word that denotes more than one is said to be of 
plural number, or plural. 

Number is the form or use of a word that denotes 
one or more than one. 

A word of singular number is a word that denotes one. 

A word of plural number is a word that denotes more 
than one. 



NOUNS 105 

79. Regular Plural. — Nouns regularly form the plural 
by adding s to the singular: as, land, lands; task, tasks. 

But nouns ending in s, x, z, ch, or sh, because these 
sounds will not unite with s, add es, which is pro- 
nounced as an additional syllable: as, gas, gases; box, 
boxes. 

Exercise 58 

Form the plural of the following nouns : 

king wish service birch pouch pass topaz 

lad knight master fez dish apple land 

kettle heart peach castle thought champion spice 

80. Irregular Plurals. — The following groups of nouns 
form the plural more or less irregularly: 

(1) Nouns Ending in / or fe. — Some nouns ending in 
/ or fe change the / to v and add es to form the plural; 
as, beef, beeves. Other examples are: 



calf 


half 


leaf 


loaf 


sheaf 


thief 


wife 


elf 


knife 


life 


self 


shelf 


warf 


wolf 



Other nouns ending in / or fe form the plural regu- 
larly: as, cliff, cliffs; cuff, cuffs; fife, fifes; proof, proofs; 
puff, puffs; roof, roofs; whiff, whiffs. 

(2) Nouns Ending in y. — Nouns ending in y preceded 
by a consonant change the y to i and add es to form 
the plural: as, ally, allies; lady, ladies. 

Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel form the 
plural regularly: as, alley, alleys; chimney, chimneys. 

(3) Nouns Ending in o. — Some nouns ending in o pre- 
ceded by a consonant form the plural by adding s, 
some by adding es, and a few by adding s or es. Note 
the following lists; 



106 



PARTS OF SPEECH 



Adding s to form the plural: 



banjo 
bravo 
burro 
canto 



casino 
chromo 
contralto 
duodecimo 



dynamo 
junto 
lasso 
octavo 



piano 
proviso 
quarto 
solo 



potato 

tomato 

tornado 



soprano 
stiletto* 
torso 
tyro 



torpedo 

veto 

volcano 



zero 



Adding es to form the plural: 

buffalo echo motto 

cargo embargo mulatto 

calico hero negro 

Adding s or es to form the plural: 

domino halo memento mosquito portico 

Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel form the 
plural regularly: as, cameo, cameos; folio, folios. 

(4) Plurals Ending in en. — A few nouns add en to 
form the plural: as, brother, brethren (or brothers); child, 
children; ox, oxen. 

(5) Plurals Formed by Internal Change. — A few nouns 
form the plural by internal change: as, foot, feet; goose, 
geese; louse, lice; mouse, mice; man, men; tooth, teeth; 
woman, women. 

(6) Plurals Ending in 's. — Letters, figures, signs, and 
words referred to merely as words form the plural by 
adding 's: as, m, m's; 5, 5's; %, %'s; and, and J s. 







Exercise 59 






Form the plural 


of: 






troop 


chimney 


staff alto 


woman 


stuff 


vicinity 


valley 


half grotto 


lasso 


sheaf 


country 


trolly 


calf dynamo 


mouse 


self 


bench 


trolley 


cliff solo 


embryo 


y 


fox 


pinch 


leaf buffalo 


ox 


$ 


army 


bush 


dwarf piano 


corpse 


if 



NOUNS 107 

81. Plural of Proper Nouns and Titles. — Proper nouns 
form the plural regularly; that is, by adding the plural 
suffix to the unchanged word: as, Henry, Henrys (not 
Henries) ; Cato, Catos; James, Jameses. 

If a title precedes the name, in formal language it 
is customary to pluralize the title rather than the name: 
as, Mr. Walker, Messrs. Walker; Miss Brown, Misses 
Brown. 

In common or informal language, the name rather 
than the title is pluralized; as, the two Mr. Walkers, 
the Miss Browns. 

The title is always pluralized when it precedes two 
or more names; as, Messrs. Jones and Smith, Mesdames 
Jones and Smith (Mrs. Jones and Mrs. Smith). 

82. Plural of Compound Nouns. — The plural of com- 
pound nouns is formed as follows: 

(1) If the words forming the compound are of equal 
importance, the last word is pluralized; as, go-betweens. 

(2) If the words forming the compound are of 
unequal importance, the principal, or described, word is 
pluralized; as, sons-in-law, hangers-on, men-of-war. 

A few compound nouns consisting of two words 
pluralize both; as, men-servants, women-servants, Knights 
Templars. 

A few nouns originally compound have lost their 
character as such and are pluralized regularly; as, 
cupfuls, mouthfuls. 

Such expressions as "two cups full" refer to two dif- 
ferent objects filled. 

The following nouns resemble compounds but are not : Brahman, 
German, Mussulman, Ottoman, Roman, talisman, and Turkoman. 
They add s to form the plural; as Brahmans. 






108 



PARTS OF SPEECH 



Exercise 60 

(1) Pluralize the following expressions and explain 
the formation of each plural: 

Mary 

Mr. Wilson 

Prof. Brown 

Miss Jones 

attorney-general 

postmaster 

postmaster-general 



j ack-in-the-pulpit 

step-brother 

mother-in-law 

court-martial 

Ottoman 

hencoop 

Nero 



stairway 

man-servant 

Mrs. Smith 

highway 

railroad 

Roman 

Frenchman 



1. Two sister-in-law. 

2. Many aide-de-camp. 

3. Three son-in-law. 

4. Two spoonful. 

5. Two spoon full. 



(2) Complete the following expressions by adding the 
proper plural sign: 

6. Many knight-errant. 

7. Doctor Brown and Smith. 

8. The three Miss Thomas. 

9. Five Turkoman. 
10. The two Mr. Thompson. 

83. Foreign Plurals. — Foreign nouns that have been 
adopted into our language without change often retain 
the foreign plural ending. They are pluralized by 
changing the singular ending thus: 

a to ae: as, formula, formulae; nebula, nebulae. 

us to i: as, radius, radii; fungus, fungi; genius, genii. 

um to a: as, datum, data; memorandum, memoranda. 

is to es: as, axis, axes; basis, bases; crisis, crises. 

ex or ix to ices: as, index, indices; appendix, appendices. 

us to era (rare): as, genus (kind or class), genera. 

on to a: as, phenomenon, phenomena; automaton, automata. 

Nouns ending in es remain unchanged: as, series, 
series; species, species. 

Hebrew nouns add im: as, Baal, Baalim; cherub, 
cherubim; seraph, seraphim. 

A few French nouns add x: as, beau, beaux. 



nebula 


effluvium 


fungus 


stratum 


genius 


analysis 


basis 


terminus 



vortex 


phenomenon 


automaton 


appendix 


seraph 


tableau 


Baal 


beau 



NOUNS 109 

There are a few others: as, bandit, banditti; dilettante, 
dilettanti. 

Some foreign nouns have also an English plural; as 
formulas, memorandums (books), geniuses (men of gen- 
ius), indexes (tables of reference), cherubs, seraphs, 
bandits, beaus. 

Exercise 61 

(1) Form the plural of the following foreign nouns: 

ellipsis 
bandit 
vertex 
parenthesis 

(2) Fill out the blank by supplying the proper plural 
form of the accompanying noun: 

1. We are of Harvard. (Alumnus.) 

2. They are of Vassar. (Alumna.) 

3. I do not understand these — : — . (Formula.) 

4. Send me five small . (Memorandum.) 

5. Enter all in this note-book. (Memorandum.) 

6. All of the same circle are equal. (Radius.) 

7. I have faced many in my life. (Crisis.) 

8. Do you know what the are? (Seraph.) 

9. He spent many years among the . (Esquimau.) 

10. We have found many of fern here. (Species.) 

11. The doctor has gathered a great deal of on this sub- 
ject. (Datum.) 

12. The horse and the dog belong to different of animals. 

(Genus.) 

84. Nouns of the Same Form in Both Numbers. — A few 
nouns have the same form in both the singular and the 
plural. Note these examples: 

swine deer Japanese heathen trout cod mackerel 

sheep seed Portuguese fish shad salmon cannon 



HO PARTS OF SPEECH 

Some of these nouns have plural forms also; thus, 

They sowed the seeds of discord. 

Various fishes (kinds of fish) abound in this lake. 

Cannons are made of iron, brass, bronze, or steel. 

Certain nouns of singular form are used in a plural 
sense in expressions of number and quantity; as, five 
pair, ten yoke, many dozen, forty head (of cattle), 
twenty sail (ships). 

85. Nouns Used Mostly in the Singular. — The follow- 
ing kinds of nouns are used mostly in the singular: 

(1) Abstract nouns; as, joy, peace, hope, beauty, etc. 

(2) Names of materials and certain foods; as, lime, 
tin, copper, wood, coffee, sugar, tea, wheat, etc. 

(3) Names of many diseases; as, fever, croup, pneu- 
monia, rheumatism, bronchitis, etc. 

Some of these nouns in certain senses are used in the 
plural; as, the enmities of mankind, the beauties of 
nature, the hopes of humanity, the joys of life, the 
beginning of hostilities, the sands of the sea, the clays of 
the South, to be put in irons, etc. 

Such expressions as two sugars (kinds of sugar), three 
coffees (kinds of coffee), are used in commercial language, 
but are not suited to literary style. 

86. Nouns Always Plural. — The following nouns are 
always plural: 



aborigines 


eaves 


pantaloons 


thanks 


annals 


entrails 


pincers 


tidings 


ashes 


forceps 


proceeds 


tongs 


breeches 


nuptials 


riches 


trousers 


clothes 


obsequies 


scissors 


victuals 


dregs 


pants 


shears 


vitals 



NOUNS HI 

The following nouns, in the sense indicated, are 
always plural: 

assets (property) goods (property) irons (shackles) 

colors (flag) greens (salad) spectacles (eye-glasses) 

87. Plural Forms Singular or Plural in Use. — The fol- 
lowing nouns are used sometimes as singular nouns, 
sometimes as plural nouns: 



alms 


bellows 


hose 


measles 


pains 


amends 


ethics 


mathematics 


mumps 


politics 


athletics 


gallows 


means 







In some cases there is a difference in meaning 
between the singular use and the plural use; thus, 

Singular Use Plural Use 

Great pains (care) was taken. His pains (aches) are severe. 

You cannot win by this means His means (property) are ample 

(instrumentality). to support him. 

This bellows is worn out. These two bellows are new. 

One hose is not enough. We need three hose. 

When a noun ending in ics is thought of as the name 
of a science or branch, it is singular in use; thus, 

Athletics is an important branch. 
Ethics is the science of moral duty. 
Mathematics is an important subject. 

The noun news is always singular in use; as, This news 
is surprising. 

As measles and mumps are the names of diseases, 
there is a growing tendency to use these words, like 
the word smallpox, as singular nouns; thus, 

James has it (measles). 
It (mumps) is infectious. 



112 PARTS OF SPEECH 

Exercise 62 

(1) Choose between the two forms and give the 
reason for your choice: 

(Note that this, it, is, and was are singular forms; that these, they, 
them, are, and were are plural forms.) 

1. Where is (are) the shears? 

2. He caught ten trout (trouts). 

3. Here is (are) your spectacles. 

4. He has six pair (pairs of) shoes. 

5. We sell all kinds of seed (seeds). 

6. He died among the heathens (heathen). 

7. How many fish (fishes) did you catch? 

8. He sells three sugars (kinds of sugar). 

9. What is this (are these) trousers worth? 

10. The assets of this firm is (are) $10,000. 

11. This news is (these news are) interesting. 

12. The politics of this city is (are) corrupt. 

13. We bought five dozen (dozens of) eggs. 

14. The wages of these men is (are) too low. 

15. During the hunt we killed five deers (deer). 

16. What was (were) the proceeds of the lecture? 

17. I am studying mathematics and like them (it). 

18. He sold ten head (heads) of hogs and two yoke (yokes) of 
oxen. 

19. George has mumps, but he does not seem to be suffering very 
much from them (it). 

20. Walter has had measles, and, for that reason, is not afraid of 
having it (them) again. 

(2) Tell why the following italicized words are used 
correctly : 

1. The irons are hot. 5. Who caught these perch? 

2. Hostilities then began. 6. Pass me that molasses. 

3. His means are limited. 7. Cannon to the right of them. 

4. Who does not enjoy the beau- 8. Phonics is the science of 

ties of nature? sound. 



NOUNS 



113 



(3) Tell whether to use it or they in referring to the 
following nouns: 



cheese 
smallpox 



physics 
victuals 



suds 
tonsilitis 



hysterics 
jaundice 



apparatus 
goods 



liabilities 
ashes 



88. Nouns Having Two Plurals. — Some nouns have 
two plural forms, which differ in meaning; thus, 

brethren (by association) 
clothes (garments) 
dice (for gaming) 
genii (supernatural beings) 
indices (algebraic signs) 
pence (sum of money) 
sail (vessels) 
staves (of timber) 



brother 


brothers (by birth) 


cloth 


cloths (kinds of cloth) 


die 


dies (for stamping) 


genius 


geniuses (men of genius) 


index 


indexes (tables of contents) 


penny 


pennies (single coins) 


sail 


sails (of canvas) 


staff 


staffs (of officers) 



Exercise 63 

Fill out the blank by supplying the proper plural 
form of the accompanying noun: 

1. How many have you? (Brother.) 

2. They are in the church. (Brother.) 

3. Take care of your . (Penny.) 

4. I bought it in London for six . (Penny.) 

His are always of the latest style. (Cloth.) 

They exhibited various showy . (Cloth.) 



These books do not have 



8. The signs in algebra are called 



(Index.) 

. (Index.) 

9. They were punished for playing at . (Die.) 

10. These are used for stamping coins. (Die.) 

11. Shakespeare and Napoleon were . (Genius.) 

12. They fear these spirits as evil . (Genius.) 

13. They carried made of oak. (Staff.) 

14. These officers belong to different . (Staff.) 

15. A hundred were in full sight. (Sail.) 

16. are used for propelling vessels. (Sail.) 



114 PARTS OF SPEECH 

Case 

89. Case Defined. — The relation of a noun or pro- 
noun to other words may be shown by its form; thus, 

He is Henry's cousin. 
Charles saw him here. 

He shows by its form that it bears the relation of 
subject to the verb is* Henry 1 s shows by its form that 
it bears the relation of possessive modifier to the noun 
cousin. Him shows by its form that it bears the rela- 
tion of direct object to the verb saw. 

But as our language is not a highly inflected lan- 
guage*, the relation of a noun or pronoun to other 
words is often shown, not by a special form, but by 
its position, or use; thus, 

You and Henry were invited. 
They invited you and Henry. 

In the foregoing sentences, the pronoun you and the 
noun Henry bear the relation of subject to the verb- 
phrase were invited, the relation of direct object to the 
verb invited. Yet, in both sentences, the form is the 
same. The exact relation of each is shown by its posi- 
tion, or use. 

The form or use of a noun or pronoun that shows its 
relation to other words is called case. 

The case of the subject is called the nominative case. 

* Substantives in early Indo-European languages had as many as 
eight forms for expressing their relations; in Latin they had six; in Old 
English they had four. 

The relations that these more highly inflected languages expressed by 
the ending of the word, or form, modern English frequently expresses 
by the position of the word or by means of prepositions. 



NOUNS 115 

The case that denotes ownership, or possession, is 
called the possessive case. This case corresponds to the 
genitive case in Latin. 

The case of the direct object is called the objective 
case. This case corresponds to the accusative case in 
Latin. 

The forms and uses known as case are called respectively case- 
forms and case-uses. While nouns and pronouns have three case- 
uses, and while a few pronouns have three case-forms, as he, his, 
him, nouns have only two case-forms: (1) the common, or nomina- 
tive and objective, case-form, as Henry; (2) the possessive case-form, 
as Henry's. 

A few grammarians call the case of the indirect object the dative 
case. But as the indirect object no longer has a form distinct from 
that of the direct object, the term objective case is generally applied 
to both of these relations.* 

i Case is the form or use of a noun or pronoun that 
snows its relation to other words. 

I The nominative case is the case of the subject. 

^The possessive case is the case that denotes ownership, 
or possession. 

The objective case is the case of the direct object. 

90. Uses of the Nominative Case. — A noun in the nom- 
inative case may be used as: 

(1) Subject; as, My work is done. 

* The Report of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature 
recommends the terms common and genitive for the two case-forms of 
nouns, and the terms nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive for the 
four case-uses. Should these terms be preferred, they can easily be 
adopted. 

In this book preference has been given to the terms possessive and 
objective over the corresponding terms genitive and accusative, or accusa- 
tive-dative, only because the former terms are in common use and are 
generally understood. 






116 PARTS OF SPEECH 

(2) Subjective Complement; as, He is my friend. 

A noun or pronoun used as a subjective complement 
is commonly called a predicate nominative. 

A noun used as a subjective complement is sometimes 
introduced by the conjunction as; thus, He was chosen 
as my assistant. 

(3) Nominative of Address (41); as, Come here, 
James. 

(4) Nominative of Exclamation (42); as, Oh, sleep! It 

is a blessed thing. 

The nominative of address denotes the person or thing spoken lo; 
the nominative of exclamation denotes the person or thing spoken 
about, and always expresses strong or sudden feeling. 

(5) Nominative Absolute (220, 4); as, Night coming 
on, we halted. 

That a noun so used is in the nominative case is 
inferred from the case of pronouns used in the same 
way. This office is called the nominative absolute, 
because the noun or pronoun so used is absolved, or 
loosed, from the rest of the sentence. 

For a fuller explanation of the nominative absolute, 
see pages 261-262. 

Exercise 64 

(1) Point out the nouns used as subjective comple- 
ment in Exercise 21; as nominative of address and as 
nominative of exclamation in Exercise 27. 

(2) In the following sentences, point out the nouns 
in the nominative case and tell the use of each: 

1. She looks a queen. 

2. Touch us gently, time. 

3. Oh, what times! what morals! 

4. what a miracle to man is man. 



NOUNS 117 

5. Music is love in search of a word. 

6. Who was chosen as the class representative? 

7. Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour. 

8. The mind is the master over every kind of fortune. 

9. night and storm and darkness, ye are 'wondrous strong! 

10. happy living things! No tongue their beauty might declare. 

11. A nickname is the hardest stone that the devil can throw at 
a man. 

12. After Pierce became President, Hawthorne was appointed as 
consul at Liverpool. 

91. Uses of the Objective Case. — A noun in the ob- 
jective case may be used as follows: 

(1) Direct Object; as, All mankind loves a lover. 
The direct object may denote: 

(a) Something produced; as, I wrote a letter. 

(b) Something acted upon; as, He read the letter. 
.(c) Something possessed; as, He owns a farm. 

(2) Objective Complement (34); as, They called him a 
coward. 

A noun used as an objective complement is some- 
times introduced by the conjunction as; thus, They 
chose him as their leader. 

(3) With a preposition; as, They sent for Thomas. 

(4) Indirect Object; as, Give every man his dues. 

(5) Adverbial Objective. — Note these examples: 

He spoke two hours. 
She is ten years old. 
It is worth two dollars. 

Hours tells how long he spoke; years tells how old she 
is; dollars tells how much it is worth. 

These nouns, therefore, have the use of adverbs. 
That they are in the objective case may be inferred 
from the fact that often a preposition may be supplied 



118 



PARTS OF SPEECH 



with the noun without changing the thought; as, He 
spoke for two hours. Hence, a noun so used is called 
an adverbial objective. 

An adverbial objective may denote time, distance, 
weight, measure, value, and the like. 

Sometimes two adverbial objectives are used in the 

same connection; as, It is worth a dollar a yard. 

There are other uses of the objective case, which will be explained 
in the proper connection. These uses are: secondary object (165), 
retained object (173), cognate object (165, 1), subject of infinitive (217), 
and predicate of infinitive (217). 

Exercise 65 

(1) Point out the nouns used as direct object in 
Exercise 22; as objective complement in Exercise 22; 
with a preposition in Exercise 12. 

(2) Bring to the class two examples of nouns used as 
indirect object. 

(3) Point out the adverbial objectives and tell what 

each one modifies: 

Models for written exercise: 

(1) He ran two miles. (2) I will not go an inch farther. 

(3) It is worth two dollars an ounce. (4) He is ten years of age. 



(1) He 



ran 



(2) I 



miles 



will go 



two 



not 
farther 



inch 



(3) It ! js_ worth 



an 



dollars 



of age (old) 



two 



ounce 



(4) He 



an 



ge is I 



years 



two 



NOUNS 119 

1. It weighs fifty pounds. 6. It is worth sixty cents. 

2. Will you wait a moment? 7. This train runs fifty miles an 

3. We have lived in Boston hour. 

many years. 8. You have paid me five dol- 

4. We will go ten miles farther. lars too much. 

5. He is eight years old. 

(4) In the following sentences, point out the nouns 
in the objective case and tell the use of each: 

1. They called her Mary. 

2. We returned home last week. 

3. Please give the speaker your attention. 

4. Sound travels eleven hundred feet a second. 

5. The Scots proclaimed the son of Charles I king. 

6. We recognized Mr. Emerson the moment we saw him. 

7. Fortune makes him a fool whom she makes her darling. 

8. "Pilgrim's Progress" has brought the author undying fame. 

9. I'll put a girdle round about the earth in forty minutes. 
10. The war between Spain and Holland dragged on twenty 

''ears longer. 

92. Forms of the Possessive Case. — The possessive case 
of nouns is formed as follows: 

(1) Singular. — In the singular number the possessive 
case of nouns is regularly formed by adding an apos- 
trophe and s ('$); as, man's, lady's. Sometimes this 
ending makes an additional syllable; as, prince's, 
James's. 

If adding the apostrophe and s to a word makes the 
sound unpleasant or hard to pronounce, only the apos- 
trophe is added and the possessive case is pronounced 
as the nominative or the objective; as, princess', 
Moses', Sophocles'. This is generally true of nouns 
ending in the sound of s or z and containing more than 
one syllable. 



120 PARTS OF SPEECH 

But, in spoken language, if the omission of the s in the posses- 
sive case leaves doubt as to the identity of the word, it should be 
added, as Dickens's, Edwards's; or an equivalent expression should 
be employed, as of Dickens, of Edwards. 

Monosyllabic nouns ending in the sound of s or z 
generally form their possessive case regularly; as, 
Charles's. 

(2) Plural. — In the plural number the possessive case 
of nouns is formed as follows: 

If the plural ends in s or x, only the apostrophe is 
added; as, ladies', teachers', beaux'. 

If the plural does not end in s or x, the possessive 
case is formed, as in the singular, by adding 's; as, 
men's, children's 

Exercise 66 

(1) Write the possessive case singular and plural of 

the following nouns: 

Japanese pianist actress 

negro farmer queen 

alumnus merchant Jones 

(2) Tell which of the two possessive singular forms 

you prefer and give the reason for your choice: 

James', James's ' Adams', Adams's 

Socrates', Socrates's Euripides', Euripides's 

Thomas', Thomas's Julius', Julius's 

(3) Tell the expression you prefer and give a reason 
for your choice: 

1. Agnes' mother, Agnes's mother. 

2. Charles' father, Charles's father. 

3. Euripides' life, the life of Euripides. 

4. For conscience' sake, for conscience's sake. 

5. The countess' daughter, the daughters of the countess. 

6. Rubens' paintings, Rubens's paintings, the paintings of Rubens. 



poet 


woman 


artist 


brother 


painter 


Esquimau 



NOUNS 121 

93. JPossessive of Compound Nouns and Phrases. — Com- 
pound -nouns and groups of words used as names, 
titles, or other designations, add the possessive sign to 
the last word; as, son-in-law's, gentlemen's, merchant- 
tailors 1 , President Lincoln's, Paul the Apostle's, the poet 
Tennyson's. 

The expressions anybody else, somebody else, nobody else, who else, 
etc., may add the possessive sign to either word, if the name of the 
thing possessed precedes the expression. Note these examples: 

It was somebody else's fault. 
The fault was somebody else's. 
The fault was somebody's else. 

Clumsy possessive forms of compound nouns and phrases are to 
be avoided. Such plural possessives as mothers-in-law's attorneys-at- 
law's, because of the recurrence of the final s, are not euphonious. 
It is better to say "of mothers-in-law," or "belonging to mothers-in- 
law," etc. 

Also possessive phrases containing appositives are liable to be 
objectionable; thus, "Victoria, Queen of England's, reign," "Brown, 
a friend of mine's, home." It is better to say "the reign of Victoria, 
Queen of England," or "the reign of Queen Victoria of England"; 
"the home of Brown, a friend of mine," or "the home of my friend 
Brown." 

Exercise 67 

(1) Supply the possessive sign where it belongs: 

1. Nobody else business. 5. My sister-in-law home. 

2. Hon. William Stevens son. 6. William Dean Howells works. 

3. Alfred the Great reign. 7. The major-general order. 

4. The fault is somebody else. 8. Lawyer Elkins home. 

(2) Tell the expression you prefer and give a reason 
for your choice: 

1. Nobody's else business, nobody else's business. 

2. Is it yours or some one's else, yours or some one else's? 



122 PARTS OF SPEECH 

3. Commanders-in-chief's duties, the duties of commanders-in- 
chief. 

4. Diaz, President of Mexico's, administration; the administration 
of Diaz, President of Mexico. 

5. This home is Nelson's, the newly appointed postmaster; is 
Nelson, the newly appointed postmaster's; belongs to Nelson, the 
newly appointed postmaster. 

94. Xjse of the Possessive Case. — In modern English 
prose, the use of the possessive case is confined mostly 
to the names of living beings; as, boy's, cat's, bird's. 

Two exceptions may be noted: 

(1) Expressions of value and measure; as, a day's 
pay, a month's salary, a year's time, a stone's throw, etc. 

(2) A few idiomatic expressions; as, the earth's sur- 
face, the water's edge, his journey's end, at daggers' 
points, at his wit's end, the cannon's roar, for pity's sake, 
for mercy's sake, for heaven's sake, etc. 

Beyond these exceptions, the use of the possessive 
case of nouns not applying to living beings is to be 
avoided in prose. An o/-phrase* or some other equiv- 
alent expression may be employed. Note these ex- 
amples: 

The streets of Boston. (Not Boston's streets.) 
The leaves of the tree. (Not the tree's leaves.) 
The pages of the book. (Not the book's pages.) 
The school at Concord, or the Concord school. (Not Concord's 
school.) 

In poetry, however, the possessive case is used more 
freely and loosely; as, the ocean's waves, nature's 
grandeur, Belgium's capital, etc. 

* An o/-phrase is not always an exact equivalent of the possessive 
case. For example, "God's love" means His love for his creatures; 
"love of God" may mean love for God, love bestowed upon God. 



NOUNS 123 

Exercise 68 

Tell the expression you prefer and give a reason for 
your choice: 

1. A year's salary, the salary of a year. 

2. The house's roof, the roof of the house. 

3. America's people, the people of America. 

4. The station at Newport, Newport's station. 

5. The grass's leaves, the leaves of the grass. 

6. For goodness' sake, for the sake of goodness. 

7. The plank's surface, the surface of the plank. 

8. Chicago's new mayor, the new mayor of Chicago. 

9. At a moment's notice, at the notice of a moment. 

10. No earthly tie equals a mother's love, the love of a mother. 



95. Double Possessive. — Note the italicized phrase : 
He is a friend of Father's. 



Here possession is doubly expressed: (1) by the 
preposition of; (2) by the possessive form Father's. 
The use of the preposition of with the possessive case 
of a noun or pronoun is called the double possessive. 

The use of the preposition of with the possessive case instead of 
the objective is idiomatic rather than grammatical. Yet, like other 
idioms, the double possessive adds to the strength and richness of 
our language. It may have an implication that neither a simple 
possessive nor a common of-phrase has. For example, James's book 
means one book; a book of James's implies that James has more 
than one book. 

Note the difference in the implication of the following expressions: 

Mary's portrait. (A portrait owned by Mary.) 

A portrait of Mary. (A likeness of Mary.) 

A portrait of Mary's. (One of Mary's portraits.) 

Sometimes, however, the double possessive is used when only one 
thing is possessed; as, That wife of Thompson's is always getting 
him into trouble. 




PARTS OF SPEECH 

.9(1* Joint and Separate Possession. — Note these two 
^expressions : 

(1) Mary and Susan' s mother. 

(2) John's and Henry's mothers. 

The first expression denotes one mother, the mother 
of Mary and Susan. Such expressions imply joint 
possession. 

The second expression denotes two mothers, the 
mother of John and the mother of Henry. Such ex- 
pressions imply separate possession. 

Note these rules: 

(1) If two or more nouns are used together to imply 
joint possession, the possessive sign is added to the last 
noun only. 

(2) If two or more nouns are used together to imply 

separate possession, the possessive sign is added to each 

noun. 

Words connected by or, nor, either . . . or, neither ... nor, 
imply separate possession; as, Neither Poe's nor Lanier's poetry. 

Exercise 69 

(1) Explain the meaning of the following expressions: 

1. Beaumont and Fletcher's works. 

2. Mary's and Elizabeth's reigns. 

3. Mary and Elizabeth's father, Henry VIII. 

4. Webster's and Calhoun's speeches. 

5. Buehler's and Carpenter's grammars. 

6. Sanford, Brown, and Smith's grammars. 

7. Wilson and Marshall's administration. 

8. Wilson's and Roosevelt's administrations. 

(2) Change to the possessive form: 

1. The sister of Edward and William. 

2. The fathers of Charles and Thomas. 

3. The cousin of neither Jane nor Susan, 



NOUNS 125 

4. The birthdays of Lee, Grant, and Lincoln. 

5. The novels of Scott, Dickens, and Thackeray. 

6. The administrations of Cleveland and Harrison. 

97. Case of Appositive Nouns. — Note these examples: 

His brother William is here. 
He forgot me, his best friend. 
This is my cousin Edward's pen. 

William is in the nominative case, in apposition with 
the subject brother. 

Friend is in the objective case, in apposition with the 
direct object me. 

Edward's is in the possessive case, in apposition with 
the possessive modifier cousin. 

An appositive is in the same case as the noun or pro- 
noun with which it is in apposition. 

If a noun is in apposition with a noun or pronoun in the posses- 
sive case, only one possessive sign is used, as shown in the foregoing 
example. Note these additional examples: 

Mary's rule as queen. 

Your report as treasurer. 

(Queen is in apposition with Mary's; the meaning is "the rule of 
Mary queen, or as queen." Treasurer is in apposition with Your; 
the meaning is "the report of your treasurer, or as treasurer.") 

Exercise 70 

Point out the appositive nouns in Exercise 25 and tell 
the case of each. 

98. Declension of Nouns. — An orderly arrangement of 
the number-forms and case-forms of a noun or pro- 
noun is called declension. Note these examples: 

Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 

Nom. Obj. boy boys man men lady ladies 

Possessive boy's boys' man's men's lady's ladies' 



126 PARTS OF SPEECH 

99. Words or Groups of Words Used as Nouns. — Words, 
also groups of words, not properly classed as nouns, 
often have the grammatical use, or case-construction, of 
nouns. These instances may be noted: 

(1) Pronouns: Lend me a pencil. (Indirect object.) 

(2) Adjectives: Love the beautiful. (Direct object.) 

(3) Adverbs: We start from here. (With a preposi- 
tion.) 

(4) Infinitives: To forgive is divine. (Subject.) 

(5) Gerunds: I'm tired of sitting here. (With a 
preposition.) 

(6) Words referred to merely as words: Erase the 
and. (Direct object.) 

(7) Phrases: It ran from under the house. (With a 
preposition.) 

(8) Clauses: Do you know who called? (Direct 
object.) 

We have learned (14) that nouns and pronouns are called sub- 
stantives. The gerund, which always has the grammatical use of a 
noun, is also a substantive. An adjective, an adverb, an infinitive, 
a phrase, or a clause, when it has the grammatical use of a noun, is 
said to be used substantively. 

Exercise 71 

Point out the words or groups of words not properly 
classed as nouns but having the grammatical use of a 
noun, and classify each: 

1. He waited until then. 

2. She misspelled separate. 

3. "Too late!" was his cry. 

4. Now is the accepted time. 

5. To bear is to conquer our fate. 

6. Let the dead Past bury its dead. 



NOUNS 127 

7. He has his heart set on doing good. 

8. To be happy here is man's chief end. 

9. The eyes of the Lord are upon the righteous. 

10. What is food to one man may be fierce poison to another. 

11. No man can enjoy happiness without thinking that he enjoys it. 

12. Our todays and yesterdays 

Are the blocks with which we build. 

Exercise 72 
(Review) 

(1) Supply capital letters where they are needed and 
give a reason for each: 



summer 


henry 


friday 


satan 


cow 


george 


Sunday 


lily 


winter 


monkey 


jersey 


bible 


sparrow 


rose 


heaven 


June 


president 


congre: 



(2) Tell why the italicized nouns are capitalized: 

1. Where is Sister? 4. Has General Scott arrived? 

2. They have gone West. 5. Is Doctor Brown Head of the 

3. Where is Uncle Joe? Department of Mathematics? 

(3) Tell why the italicized words are not capitalized: 

1. My sister is ill. 4. Was private Jones promoted? 

2. It is cloudy in the north. 5. Are you the president or the 

3. He wrote a "Song of Life." secretary of the company? 

(4) Supply capital letters where they are needed: 

1. Goldsmith wrote the comedy 3. Who was then governor of 

"she stoops to conquer.' ' the state of Washington? 

2. What is meant by "the peti- 4. On the committee were doc- 

tion of rights?" tor jones and lawyer brown. 

(5) Pluralize the following nouns: 



purpose 


calf 


alto 


genius 




Roman Chinaman 


heroine 


oratorio 


Cary 


formula 




fabliau Frenchman 


comedy 


piano 


analysis 


index 




touch-me-not Turkoman 


witch 


portico 


fungus 


step-son 




talisman Plato 


giraffe 


studio 


genus 


sister-in- 


law 


puff aide-de-camp 



128 



PARTS OF SPEECH 



(6) Tell why the italicized words are correctly used 
as to number: 



1. Why do the heathen rage? 

2. These scissors are dull. 

3. What is your politics? 11 

4. Charles has it (measles). 12 

5. Has the molasses soured? 

6. The jury has rendered its 13 

verdict. 

7. One sheep was lost, ten sheep 

were saved. 

8. They sowed the seeds of dis- 

cord. 



9. This seed is damaged. 

10. The news is encouraging. 

11. The Misses Brown are here. 

12. There are three Doctor 
Browns in the city. 

Acoustics is the science of 

sound. 
How many alumni has this 

college? 
15. They ordered ten pair gloves 

and two dozen collars. 



14 



(7) Tell which of the 
which are feminine, and 



following nouns are masculine, 
which may apply to either sex: 



witch 


waiter 


brunette 


brakeman 


butler 


administrator 


physician 


servant 


stenographer 


Jew 


testatrix 


layman 


hind 


cook 


Jewess 


tiger 


novelist 


cow 


laundress 


fiancee 


tigress 


singer 


bird 


belle 


fiance* 


actor 


farmer 


doe 


beau 


groom 


actress 


painter 


deer 


bride 


alumnus 


carpenter 


blonde 


buck 


clerk 


preacher 



(8) Copy these expressions, changing to the pos- 
sessive form wherever that form would not be objec- 
tionable. Avoid clumsy and misused possessives. 

9. Borders of Mexico. 

10. Rewards of peacemakers. 

11. Works of the poet Dante. 

12. Dramas of Euripides. 

13. Area of the United States. 

14. Surface of the earth. 

15. Home of Doctor Brown, the 
professor of Latin. 



1. Weight of the rock. 

2. Flight of a hawk. 

3. Armor of a man-of-war. 

4. Time of a month. 

5. Fire in Baltimore. 

6. Station at Caswell. 

7. Head of a match. 

8. Vacation of a week. 



NOUNS 129 

(9) Write sentences to illustrate the correct use of 
these expressions: 

1. The enemy's fear. 4. No one's else. 

2. Fear of the enemy. 5. Portrait of Father. 

3. No one else's. 6. Portrait of Father's. 

(10) Change to the possessive form: 

1. The mother of James and John. 

2. The mothers of Paul and Peter. 

3. The histories of Gibbon or Macaulay. 

4. The conquests of Caesar and Napoleon. 

5. The administrations of Washington and Jefferson. 

(11) Tell the case and grammatical use of the nouns: 

1. Throw not away an hour. 

2. Perfection is no trifle. 

3. father! I see a gleaming light. 

4. Education is the bulwark of freedom. 

5. Caesar's skill as a general was remarkable. 

6. Cowardice! who calls self-control cowardice? 

, 7. A few years afterwards, he became a rich man. 

8. There he sat, the smoke curling from his pipe. 

9. The world owes only the deserving man a living. 

10. The Magna Charta, or Great Charter, was signed in 1215. 

100. Parsing of Nouns. — To parse a word is to 
describe it; that is, to tell its class, inflectional form, 
and grammatical use. 

To parse a noun we tell the following: 

(1) Class. 

(2) Gender. 

(3) Number. 

(4) Case. 

(5) Grammatical use. 



130 PARTS OF SPEECH 

Models for parsing nouns: 

Columbus was a tall man, of grave and gentle manners, and noble 
though saddened look. 

1. Columbus is a proper noun, masculine gender, singular number, 
nominative case, subject of the verb was. 

2. Man is a common noun, masculine gender, singular number, 
nominative case, subjective complement. 

3. Manners is a common abstract noun, neuter gender, plural 
number, objective case, used with the preposition of. 

4. Look is a common abstract noun, neuter gender, singular num- 
ber, objective case, used with the preposition of. 

Exercise 73 
Parse the nouns in the following selections: 

1. The life that floods the happy fields 

With song, and light, and color 
Will shape our lives to richer states, 
And heap our measures fuller. 

— C. P. Cranch. 

2. God bless our noble working men, 

Who rear the cities of the plain! 
Who dig the mines, who build the ships, 

And drive the commerce of the main! 
God bless them! For their toiling hands 

Have wrought the glory of all lands. 

— Anonymous. 

3. Do you remember, little cloud, 

This morning — when you lay 
A mist along the river — what 
The waters had to say? 

And how the many-colored flowers 

That on the margin grew, 
All promised when the day was done 

To leave their tints to you? 

— Father Tabb. 



NOUNS 131 

4. Freedom! thou are not, as poets dream, 
A fair young girl, with light and delicate limbs, 
And wavy tresses gushing from the cap 
With which the Roman master crowned his slave 
When he took off the gyves. A bearded man, 
Armed to the teeth, art thou; one mailed hand 
Grasps the broad shield, and one the sword; thy brow, 
Glorious in beauty though it be, is scarred 
With tokens of old wars; thy massive limbs 
Are strong with struggling. Power at thee has launched 
His bolts, and with his lightnings smitten thee; 
They could not quench the life thou hast from heaven. 

— W. C. Bryant. 



132 PARTS OF SPEECH 

SUMMARY OF NOUNS 
I. Kinds 

1. Proper (67, 69), Common (68, 69) 

a. Collective (70) 

b. Abstract (71) 

2. Compound (72), Phrasal (73, 74) 

II. Inflectional Forms 

1. Gender (76, 77) 

a. Masculine 

b. Feminine 

c. Neuter 

2. Number (78-88) 

a. Singular 

b. Plural 

3. Case (89-97) 

a. Nominative 

b. Objective 

c. Possessive 

III. Grammatical Uses 

1. Nominative (90) 

a. Subject 

b. Subjective Complement (Predicate Nominative) 

c. Nominative of Address 

d. Nominative of Exclamation 

e. Nominative Absolute 

2. Objective (91) 

a. Direct Object 

b. Objective Complement 

c. With a Preposition 

d. Indirect Object 

e. Adverbial Objective 

/. Secondary Object (165) 

g. Retained Object (173) 

h. Subject of Infinitive (217) 

i. Predicate of Infinitive (217) 

3. Possessive: Possessive Modifier (94) 

4. Any Case: Appositive Nouns (97) 



Chapter II 



PRONOUNS 



101. Antecedent of a Pronoun. — We have learned (14) 
that a pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It 
always stands for a word or group of words, either 
expressed or not expressed; thus, 

John hurt himself. 
Who told you this? 

Himself stands for the noun John; who, you, and 
this each stand for a word not expressed. The word or 
group of words for which a pronoun stands is called 
the antecedent of the pronoun, the term antecedent 
meaning "going before." 

The antecedent of a pronoun is the word or group of 
words for which it stands. 

102. How a Pronoun Differs from a Noun. — While a 
pronoun may have most of the grammatical uses of a 
noun, there is this essential difference between the two: 
a noun is a name; a pronoun is only a substitute for a 
name. A pronoun merely represents something that 
has been previously named or that is pointed out at 
the time. 

Again, while an adjective modifier may be placed 
immediately before a noun, it is rarely so placed before 
a pronoun. For example, we may say "a beautiful 
woman," but not "a beautiful she"; "a handsome man," 
but not "a handsome he" 

133 



134 PARTS OF SPEECH 

103. Some Words either Adjectives or Pronouns. — Some 
words — this, that, many, few, some, all, any, which, etc. 
— may be either adjectives or pronouns; thus, 

Adjectives Pronouns 

This knife is George's. This is George's knife. 

Which book is Henry's? Which is Henry's book? 

Many people believe the report. Many believe the report. 

As here shown, this, that, many, few, etc., are adjec- 
tives when they are directly joined to the noun modi- 
fied; are pronouns when they are separated from the 
noun modified, or when they stand alone. 

Exercise 74 
Tell whether the following italicized words are adjec- 
tives or pronouns and give a reason with each: 

1. Both men were pleased. 5. Which of these is yours? 

2. Both were pleased. 6. Which way did he go? 

3. Each of us is ready. 7. All of us are interested. 

4. Each man is ready. 8. All men are liable to err. 

104. Kinds of Pronouns. — Pronouns are of the follow- 
ing kinds: 

(1) Personal 

Compound Personal 

(2) Demonstrative 

(3) Interrogative 

(4) Relative 

Compound Relative 

(5) Indefinite 

Personal Pronouns 

105. Personal Pronouns Defined. — Note these examples: 

May I tell you what he thinks about it? 
I shows by its form that it denotes the speaker; you, 
that it denotes the person spoken to; he, that it denotes 



PRONOUNS 135 

the person spoken of; it, that it denotes the thing 
spoken of. A pronoun that shows by its form whether 
it denotes the speaker, the person spoken to, or the 
person or thing spoken of, is called a personal pronoun. 

A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows by its 
form whether it denotes the speaker, the person spoken 
to, or the person or thing spoken of. 

A pronoun that denotes the speaker is of the first 
person. 

A pronoun that denotes the person spoken to is of 
the second person. 

A pronoun that denotes the person or thing spoken 
of is of the third person. 

Exercise 75 

Point out the personal pronouns and tell whether 
each is of the first, second, or third person: 

1. What have I to do with thee? 5. He sold it to me. 

2. They told me about you. 6. Thou art the man. 

3. She returned with us. 7. He who has one enemy will 

4. We will treat you well. meet him everywhere. 

106. Declension of Personal Pronouns. — Personal pro- 
nouns are declined as follows: 





First Person 




Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 


Singular 
I 

my, mine 
me 

Second Person 


Plural 
we 

our, ours 
us 


Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 


Singular 
thou 

thy, thine 
thee 


Plural 
you, ye 
your, yours 
you 





Plural 


Neuter 


All Genders 


it 


they 


its 


their, theirs 


it 


them 



136 PARTS OF SPEECH 

Third Person 

Singular 
Masculine Feminine 

Nominative he she 

Possessive his her, hers 

Objective him her 

The forms my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, and their 
may also be treated as possessive adjectives * 

Exercise 76 

(1) Tell the person, gender, number, and case of 
these forms: 

she it her his its he him hers 

(2) Tell the person, number, and case of these forms: 

ye thee thou you they my your yours 

we mine us me thine ours our 

107. Use of Person and Number Forms. — Note the use 
of the following person and number forms: 

(1) We. — Strictly speaking, we is not the plural of 
J, for J has no plural. We denotes the speaker, to- 
gether with the other person or persons with whom the 
speaker groups himself; thus, 

We (you and /) are friends, John. 
We (my companions and I) were there. 
We Americans believe in equal rights. 

* The Report of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature 
recommends: (1) that two case-forms — nominative and accusative- 
dative (objective) — of most personal pronouns, together with who and 
its compounds, be recognized; (2) that my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, 
their, and whose be treated as possessive adjectives; (3) that mine, thine, 
his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs be treated as possessive pronouns, unless 
they are used as predicate adjectives (subjective complement). Note 
these examples: 

Possessive Adjectives Possessive Pronouns 

This is my hat, not his hat. Ours have all been taken. 

That hat is mine, not his. They want mine, not yours. 



PRONOUNS 137 

Sometimes, however, a writer, speaker, or ruler uses 
the plural forms we, our, ours, and us when speaking of 
himself only; thus, 

We (the editor) have our own opinion as to this. 
We (the speaker) shall fight this measure to the end. 
What touches us ourself (Caesar) shall be last served. 

(2) Thou. — Thou, thy, thine, and thee were formerly 
the common forms of the second person singular, but 
now their use is confined chiefly to poetry and prayer; 
thus, 

Have more than thou showest, 
Speak more than thou knowest. 
In thee, Lord, do I put my trust. 

(3) Ye. — Originally ye was the common form of the 
nominative plural of the second person, while you was 
found only in the accusative-dative (objective) plural. 
Now, ye, like thou, is confined chiefly to poetry and 
solemn style; thus, 

Sing, ye meadow-streams, with gladsome voice! 
Ye know too well the story of our thraldom. 

(4) You. — You, your, and yours have gradually taken 
the place of thou, thy, thine, thee, and ye in ordinary 
language. They are plural forms and originally were 
used only in a plural sense, but now they are used in 
a singular sense as well as a plural; thus, 

You stay here, John. 

When did you come, Martha? 

Who told you this, children? 

You, however, always requires a plural verb. Such 
expressions as "you was" are incorrect and are to be 
carefully avoided. 



138 PARTS OF SPEECH 

Exercise 77 

(1) Tell whether the italicized pronouns are used in 
a singular or plural sense: 

1. We saw him there. 

2. James, will you help me? 

3. What have you done, gentlemen? 

4. We, Charles II, King of England, hereunto affix our seal. 

5. We (the author) invite a free discussion of the five proposi- 
tions we herein set forth. 

(2) Explain why these forms of the second person of 
the personal pronoun are used: 

1. Lend less than thou owest. 

2. When will you return, Mary? 

3. Blessings on thee, little man. 

4. Ye sons of Freedom! wake to glory. 

5. Thou from whom all blessings flow. 

6. Your manners are always under examination. 

(3) Supply was or were in each of these sentences and 
give a reason for your choice: 

1. We also invited. 

2. I surprised at him. 

3. Where you yesterday, George? 

4. You praised by your teacher, children. 

108. Three Gender-Forms. — Nouns, as we have seen 
(77), liave only two gender-forms, masculine and fem- 
inine, the distinction of neuter gender in nouns being 
based on their use or meaning. Personal pronouns of 
the third person singular have three gender-forms: 

(1) Masculine; as, he, his, him. 

(2) Feminine; as, she, her, hers. 

(3) Neuter; as, it, its. 



PRONOUNS 139 

109. Uses of the Masculine Forms. — The masculine 
forms he, his, him, may be used to denote: 

(1) Male beings, either persons or lower animals; as, 

He is my father. 

The stag has lost his mate. 

(2) Persons in a general way, without distinction as 

to sex; as, 

Every person nas his faults. 

Every American should be loyal to his country. 

Here his refers to persons of either sex without dis- 
tinction. He, his, and him are used in this way because 
our language has no pronoun of common gender-form 
in the third person singular. 

(3) Lower animals that seem to possess mainly mas- 
culine characteristics — strength, fierceness, or the like; as, 

The dog has lost his master. 
The lion springs upon his prey. 

(4) Personified objects noted for masculine charac- 
teristics — size, power, majesty, or the like; as, 

The sun hid his face. 

The giant mountain lifts his head. 

Exercise 78 

Tell which pronouns denote male beings; which, per- 
sons of either sex; which, animals or personified objects 
possessing masculine characteristics: 

1. He dare not say no. 6. Let every person do his best. 

2. He who wins must toil. 7. The elephant killed his master. 

3. War claims his millions. 8. The soldier sacrificed his life. 

4. The storm has left death in 9. The giant snake held his prey 

his path. in his coils. 

5. Not a single resident saved 10. On winter's hoary beard his 

his property. breath did freeze. 



140 PARTS OF SPEECH 

110. Uses of the Feminine Forms. — The feminine 
forms she, her, and hers may be used to denote: 

(1) Female beings, either persons or lower animals; as, 

She is my teacher. 

The hen protects her brood. 

(2) Lower animals that seem to possess mainly 
feminine characteristics — grace, gentleness, cunning, or 
the like; as, 

Shall the fox forget her cunning? 

(3) Personified objects noted for feminine character- 
istics — grace, beauty, fertility, or the like; as, 

See the ship! she stirs! 
The moon has hid her face. 
This nation is proud of her sons. 

The figure of personification is suited to the language 
of feeling rather than to ordinary language. The care- 
less use of feminine pronouns in referring to inanimate 
objects is to be avoided; thus, 

She is a fine gun. (Say "it.") 

The city pays her police well. (Say -" its.") 

Exercise 79 

(1) Tell which pronouns denote female beings; which, 
animals or personified objects possessing feminine char- 
acteristics : 

1. She is my sister. 6. The cat steals upon her prey. 

2. She is a noble ship. 7. A cow will fight for her calf. 

3. I am a cousin of hers. 8. This teacher loves her pupils. 

4. The wren builds her nest in 9. Nature, so far as in her lies, 

a hole. imitates God. 

5. Now twilight lets her cur- 10. When fortune flatters, she does 

tain down. it to betray. 



PRONOUNS 141 

(2) Supply the proper gender-form of pronoun and 
give a reason for your choice: 

1. David does work well. 5. No one should seek to injure 

2. Let every pupil remain at enemies. 

desk. 6. How wonderful is Death! 

3. This heifer has injured • Death and brother 

foot. Sleep. 

4. Night in vaulted pris- 7. is a noted actress. 

on stows the day. 8. See how the morning opes 

golden gates. 



111. Uses of the Neuter Forms. — The neuter pro- 
nouns it and its are the only distinct neuter gender- 
forms in our language, unless the pronoun what be so 
regarded. These neuter forms may be used to denote: 

(1) Objects without life; as, 

Bring it (the ladder) to me. 

Where does the river get its water from? 

(2) Lower animals and very small children, whose sex 
is often disregarded; as, 

The bird lost its mate. 

The child cries for its mother. 

112. Special Uses of It. — In addition to its regular 
uses, the pronoun it has the following special uses: 

(1) Impersonal subject; as, 

It snowed. 

It is growing late. 

How far is it to town? 

It as impersonal subject does not refer to anything 
definite; it merely aids the verb in its predication. 

(2) Impersonal object; as, 

We are roughing it now. 
You cannot lord it over us. 



142 PARTS OF SPEECH 

It as impersonal object does not refer to anything 
definite, but rather serves to complete the expression. 
This use of it is confined mostly to colloquial language. 

(3) Grammatical subject, or expletive (a "filler"); as, 

It is never too late to mend. 

It is not known what took place. 

The real, or logical, subject is the phrase or clause 
standing in the predicate, in apposition with the exple- 
tive it; thus, 

It, (namely) to mend, is never too late. 
It, (namely) what took place, is not known. 

(4) Subject of is or was in the sense of "the person" 

or "the thing;" as, 

It (the person) was I. 

It (the person) was he that told me. 

What was it (the thing) that you saw? 

These expressions are idiomatic, and are preferable 
to their equivalents "I was the one," "He was the one 
that told me," etc. 

Exercise 80 

(1) Point out the neuter pronouns and tell how each 
is used: 

1. It is a deep river. 

2. The child broke its arm. 

3. The bird takes care of its young. 

4. This tree will soon shed its leaves. 

5. I have lost my book; have you seen it? 

(2) Explain the special uses of it: 

1. It is I. 5. It is growing cold. 

2. It was raining. 6. It is you that I mean. 

3. We footed it home. 7. You'll catch it for this! 

4. It is not known who was chosen. 8. It is often hard to find out 

the truth. 



drake 


bachelor 


duck 


witch 


alumnus 


hart 


brunette 


hind 



PRONOUNS 143 

(3) Tell which of the two forms of expression is the 
more natural or forcible: 

1. It is late; the hour is late. 

2. It was I that called; I was the one that called. 

3. What was it that you saw; what was the object that you saw? 

4. It takes time to build cities; to build cities takes time. 

Exercise 81 

(1) Tell whether to use he, she, or it in referring to 
these nouns:, 

porch wagon mockingbird elephant 

town fly Francis calf 

infant trout Frances London 

lad mountain Alabama deer 

lass rose France debutante modiste blonde 

(2) Supply the proper gender-form of the pronoun 
and give a reason for your choice: 

1. Who was that told you? 

2. Virginia is proud of sons. 

3. The modest violet hid face. 

4. Now night spreads sable wings. 

5. Every one of us must be on guard. 

6. Look at that building; isn't tall? 

7. The ocean dashed high angry billows. 

8. Does any one wish to express opinion? 

9. Here is a giraffe; do you wish to see ? 

10. Every person should attend to own business. 

113. Three Case-Forms. — Nouns, as we have seen 
(89), have only two case-forms — common and pos- 
sessive. Personal pronouns have three case-forms: 
(1) nominative, as he, they; (2) possessive, as his, their or 
theirs; (3) objective, as him, them. 



144 PARTS OF SPEECH 

114. Uses of the Nominative Case. — The nominative 
case of personal pronouns has the same grammatical 
uses as the nominative case of nouns, thus: 

(1) Subject; as, We are here, It is true. 

(2) Subjective complement, or predicate nominative; as, 
It is 7, It was he. 

"It is me" is a common colloquial expression, and is justified by 
some grammarians on the ground of its being an idiom. However, 
the use of the objective case after "it is," "it was," etc., has not as 
yet been sanctioned by good literary usage. 

(3) Nominative of address; as, Ye men of Israel. 

(4) Nominative of exclamation; as, O happy we! 

(5) Nominative absolute; as, He being for us, who can 
prevail against us? 

Exercise 82 

(1) Tell how the italicized pronouns are used: 

1. What were we to do? 7. Were I you, I should refuse. 

2. I wish I were you. 8. It was you that he wanted. 

3. Do they believe it? 9. fortunate they! victory is 

4. They being away, the matter now theirs. 

was put off. 10. But thou, Hope, what was 

5. it wasn't J that spoke to you. thy delighted measure? 

6. It was only we. 

(2) Choose between the two case-forms and give a 
reason for your choice: 

1. It was they (them). 3. It is we (us). 

2. It was not I (me) that told 4. Is it her (she) that you sent 

him. for? 

115. Uses of the Objective Case. — The objective case 
of personal pronouns has the following uses: 

(1) Direct object; as, Who called me? 



PRONOUNS 145 

(2) Indirect object; as, Tell us a story; I gave you all 
I had; I promised him this. 

(3) With a preposition; as, This is for you. 

When a pronoun is one of two or more words used with a prepo- 
sition, care must be taken to employ the proper case-form of the 
pronoun. For example, say "for you and me," not "for you and I." 

(4) In exclamations; as, Poor me! 

Two other uses of the objective case will be explained in the 
proper connection: subject of infinitive (217) and predicate of infini- 
tive (217). 

Exercise 83 

Tell how the italicized pronouns are used: 

1. Who told them this? 5. He called for you and me. 

2. They gave it to me. 6. Did you see her there? 

3. Ah, miserable me! 7. Pay us what you owe us. 

4. Did they offer you the posi- 8. They granted us everything 

tion? we asked for. 

Exercise 84 

Supply the proper case-form of pronoun in each sen- 
tence, and give a reason for your choice: 

/, me 

1. Come with John and . 5. Oh, wretched ! 

2. It was not . 6. He is taller than . 



3. Send for Mary and . 7. You and must attend. 

4. I wish it were . 8. Give it to Alice and . 

We, us 

9. He thought it was . 11. You are not so merry as 

10. They are older than . . 



12. He sent for boys. 



146 PARTS OF SPEECH 

He, him 

13. I wish I were . 15. Was it that told you? 

14. If I were , I would 16. All of us were invited but 

not do it. James and . 

She, her 

17. and Jane are sisters. 21. All came but and 

18. No, it was not . Susan. 

19. I am not so old as . 22. I shall invite you and . 

20. You and must attend. 

They, them 

23. You and are to blame. 25. We are younger than . 

24. Is it that you mean? 26. All are here except . 



He and /, him and me 

27. will be there. 29. Do you mean — ? 

28. It was done by 30. It was that 

. did it. 

/ 116. Uses of the Possessive Case. — As we have seen 
in the declension of personal pronouns (106), all of 
them but he and it have two possessive forms. These 
forms differ in their use; thus, 

(1) My, thy, her, our, your, and their are followed by 
the name of the thing possessed; as, my hat, her pen, 
etc. 

As these forms have an adjectival use, they are some- 
times called possessive adjectives. 

(2) Mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs are not 
followed by the name of the thing possessed, and are 
commonly used as subjective complement; as, 

The hat is mine. 
The pen is hers. 



PRONOUNS 147 

Note, also, other grammatical uses: 

Mine are gone, yours remain. (Subject.) 

Take mine, but leave theirs. (Direct object.) 

His points were added to mine. (With a preposition.) 

He is an old friend of ours. (Double possessive.) 

In poetry and in older English, mine and thine may be used 
instead of my and thy before words beginning with a vowel sound 
or h; as, mine honor, thine eyes. 

His may be used either way; as, 

His brother is here. 
The fault is not his. 

The apostrophe is never used in forming the possessive case of 
personal pronouns. "It's" means "it is." 

Exercise 85 

(1) Supply the proper possessive form and give a 
reason for your choice: 

1. He is uncle. (My, mine.) 

2. He is an uncle of . (My, mine.) 

3. This home is — . (Our, ours.) 

4. This is home. (Our, ours.) 

5. I could not find . (Their, theirs.) 

6. Love enemies. (Thy, thine.) 

7. Two of are lost. (Your, yours.) 

8. This is hat. (Her, hers.) 

9. We are relatives of . (Her, hers.) 

10. This tree has shed leaves. (It's, its.) 

(2) Tell the grammatical use of the possessive forms: 

1. Mine are not yours. 3. They have sold theirs. 

2. Please add it to yours. 4. He is a friend of mine. 

117. Compound Personal Pronouns. — Note these exam- 
ples: 

He praised himself. 
You yourselves must go. 



148 PARTS OF SPEECH 

Himself is formed by adding self to him; yourselves 
by adding selves to your, A pronoun formed by adding 
self or selves to some form of a personal pronoun is 
called a compound personal pronoun. 

A compound personal pronoun is a pronoun formed by 
adding self or selves to some form of a personal pronoun. 

The various forms of compound personal pronouns 
are: 

Singular Plural 

First person myself (ourself) ourselves 

Second person thyself or yourself yourselves 

Third person himself, herself, itself themselves 

In the first or second person, self or selves is added 
to the possessive case of the pronoun; in the third 
person, self or selves is added to the objective case. 
Hisself and theirselves are incorrect forms. 

Sometimes the two parts of the compound appear as separate 
words, with the adjective own or very inserted for emphasis; as, my 
own self, your own self, his own self, etc. 

Ourself is a rare form corresponding to the editorial or royal we 
(107, 1). 

118. Uses of Compound Personal Pronouns. — Com- 
pound personal pronouns may be used in two ways: 

(1) They may be used with a verb or a preposition 
to refer back to the subject; as, 

I hurt myself. (Direct object.) 

Do yourself justice. (Indirect object.) 

Choose for yourselves. (With a preposition.) 

A compound personal pronoun used with a verb or a 
preposition to refer back to the subject is called a 
reflexive pronoun. 



PRONOUNS 149 

A reflexive pronoun is a compound personal pronoun 
used with a verb or a preposition to refer back to the 
subject. 

Sometimes, especially in colloquial language, the simple forms of 
personal pronouns are used reflexively: as, Now I lay me down to 
sleep; Look around you. 

(2) They may be used for emphasis; as, 

I myself will go. 

You must see him yourself. 

A compound personal pronoun used for emphasis is 
called an intensive pronoun. 

An intensive pronoun is a compound personal pronoun 
used for emphasis. 

An intensive pronoun is in apposition with the word it empha- 
sizes. In the foregoing examples, myself is in apposition with 7, 
yourself with You. 

The word with which an intensive pronoun is in apposition may 
not be expressed: as, Go yourself (you yourself); Be yourself (you 
yourself) . 

An intensive pronoun should not be used as a simple personal 
pronoun. For example, we should say, "John and I (not myself) 
were there"; "This is for Mary and you (not yourself)." 

Exercise 86 

(1) Point out the compound personal pronouns and 
tell whether they are used as reflexive or intensive pro- 
nouns: 

1. Just be yourself. 

2. You must face the crisis yourself. 

3. The gods help those who help themselves. 

4. Let each man think himself an act of God. 

5. Know then thyself, presume not God to scan. 

6. If you wish a thing to be well done, you must do it yourself. 



150 PARTS OF SPEECH 

(2) Supply the proper form and give a reason for 
your choice: 

1. I defended . (Me, myself.) 

2. Father and were there. (I, myself.) 

3. I bought a new cloak. (Me, myself.) 

4. He sent for Jane and . (Me, myself.) 

5. To be true. (Thyself, thine own self.) 

6. This is known only to you and . (Me, myself.) 

7. We saw round a raging flood. (Us, ourselves.) 

8. They have invited only Anne and . (You, yourself.) 

9. He has no one to blame but . (Hisself, himself.) 

10. They had better look out for . (Theirselves, them- 
selves.) 

Demonstrative Pronouns 

119. Demonstrative Pronouns Defined. — Note these 

examples: m r . , 

^ 1 his is our home. 

That is our store. 

This and that are used to point out something. A 
pronoun used to point out something is called a 
demonstrative pronoun, the term demonstrative meaning 
"pointing out." 

A demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun used to point 
out something. 

The demonstrative pronouns are this and that. They 
are inflected only for number, thus: 



Singular 


Plural 


this 


these 


that 


those 



120. Uses of Demonstrative Pronouns. — This is used to 

point out something near the speaker in time, place, or 

thought; that, to point out something more remote: thus, 

This is my book. (The book nearby.) 
That is where I live. (The place yonder.) 



PRONOUNS 151 

That is sometimes used to avoid repeating a noun; as, 
I lost both my book and that of my sister. 

This and that have also an adjectival use; as, this 
day, that year. 

This and that may have most of the grammatical uses of nouns. 
As they are not inflected for case, they are not liable to be wrongly 
used grammatically. 

Exercise 87 

(1) Supply the proper demonstrative pronoun and 
give a reason for your choice: 

1. are my scissors; are yours. 

2. is my garden; is my brother's. 

3. The saddest words are : "It might have been!" 

4. Neither my estate nor of yours is liable to this tax. 

5. are very lofty mountains; how many miles distant are 

they? • 

(2) Tell the grammatical use of the demonstrative 
pronouns : 

1. Give these to him. 5. This done, what remains? 

2. Add yours to those. 6. I understand that very well. 

3. Give this another test. 7. I shall name it this. 

4. His meaning was this. 8. It all started from that. 

Interrogative Pronouns 

121. Interrogative Pronouns Defined. — Note these ex- 
amples : 

Who is it? 

Which do you want? 

What shall we call it? 

Who, which, and what are here used in asking ques- 
tions. A pronoun used to ask a question is called an 
interrogative pronoun. 



152 PARTS OF SPEECH 

An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used to ask a 
question. 

The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what. 
Of these, only who is inflected and that merely for 
case. It is declined as follows: 

Singular and Plural 
Nominative who 

Possessive whose 

Objective whom 

The number of who, which, or what is determined by 
the use of the pronoun; thus, 

Who is that boy? Who are those boys? 
Which is Edward? Which are his friends? 
What is a lasso? What are these things? 

Whose, like this, may have either an adjectival or a substantive 
use; thus, 

Whose house is this? (Adjectival use.) 
Whose is this house? (Substantive use.) 

Whether, which is now used only as a conjunction, was formerly 
used also as an interrogative pronoun; as, Whether of them twain 
(which of the two) did the will of his father? 

122. Uses of Interrogative Pronouns. — The interroga- 
tive pronouns are used as follows: 

(1) Who is used to denote persons only; as, 

Who comes here? 

Whose hat is this? 

To whom did you speak? 

(2) Which is used to denote either persons or things; 
as, 

Which is your brother? 
Which is your umbrella? 



PRONOUNS 153 

(3) What is used to denote everything except persons ; 
as, 

What is that crawling there? 
What shall I say as to this? 

Which differs from who and what in implying that the choice or 
selection is limited to a certain set or number. For example, 
we may say, "Who called me?" or "Which of you (not who of you) 
called me?" u What do you want?" or "Which of these (not what 
of these) do you want?" 

The interrogative pronouns who, which, and what 
have about the same grammatical uses. As who has 
three case-forms, its grammatical uses are of especial 
importance. Note these: 

Subject; as, Who did it? 

Subjective complement, or predicate nominative; as, 
Who are you? (You are who?) 

Possessive modifier; as, Whose book is this? 

Direct object; as, Whom do you see? 

With a preposition; as, From whom is this? 

The uses of who and whom are liable to be confounded. There is 
a tendency, especially in colloquial language, to ignore whom and to 
employ who too much. These forms are correctly used in the fol- 
lowing sentences; can you explain why? 

Who are you? Who do you think I am? 

Whom do you want? Whom do you think I want? 

Whom is it for? Whom do you think it is for? 

Exercise 88 

(1) Supply the proper interrogative pronoun and give 
a reason for your choice: 

1. told you? 4. of them belongs to you? 

2. of the boys told you? 5. is our greatest Ameri- 

3. is that object? can poet? 



154 PARTS OF SPEECH 

6. of our American poets 10. of these birds is a 



is your favorite? quail? 

7. do you say to this? 11. is your teacher and 

8. of you is the oldest? does she teach? 

9. is a quail? 12. of you boys will go 

along with us? 

(2) Supply the proper form of who and give a reason 
for your choice: 

1. are these women? 6. do you suppose we are? 

2. did you speak to? 7. did they send for? 

3. watch is this? 8. is she and does 

4. are those men? she want? 

5. do you say they are? 



(3) Tell the grammatical use of each interrogative 
pronoun : 

1. Which shall we take? 6. What is the meaning of this? 

2. Who is that officer? 7. What do you call this? 

3. Who do you say he is? 8. To whom was the letter ad- 

4. To what do you liken this? dressed? 

5. Which of them do you prefer? 

123. Direct Questions and Indirect Questions. — Note 
these examples: 

(1) Harry asked, "Who spoke to met 11 

(2) Harry asked who spoke to him. 

In the first sentence, Harry's question is expressed 
in the exact words of the speaker, "Who spoke to meV 
A question expressed in the exact words of the speaker 
is called a direct question. 

In the second sentence, Harry's question is expressed 
in substance as a subordinate clause, who spoke to him, 
and not directly quoted. A question expressed in sub- 
stance as a subordinate clause and not directly quoted 
is called an indirect question. 



PRONOUNS 155 

Note these additional examples of indirect question: 

I know who he is. (Question implied, "Who is he?") 

I forgot who told me. (Question implied, "Who told me?") 

Tell us what you did. (Question implied, "What did you do?") 

A direct question is a question expressed in the exact 
words of the speaker. 

An indirect question is a question expressed in sub- 
stance as a subordinate clause, and not directly quoted. 

Indirect questions are found after verbs and other expressions of 
asking, telling, knowing, doubting, and the like. They are not fol- 
lowed by an interrogation point. 

Who, which, or what has the same meaning and use in an indirect 
question as in the corresponding direct question. Note that who or 
whom does not change its form in passing from the direct type to 
the indirect; thus, 

Who came? He asks who came. 

Who is that? He asks who that is. 

Whom do you seek? He asks whom you seek. 

Whom is it from? He asks whom it is from. 

Exercise 89 

(1) Write five direct questions introduced by who, 
which, or what, then change each to an indirect ques- 
tion. 

(2) Supply the proper interrogative pronoun and give 
a reason for your choice: 

1. I do not know of the 5. Do you know of these 

two I prefer. books is the most interest- 

2. Tell me you saw on ing? 

your trip. 6. Tell us of our presi- 

3. Do you know wrote dents was opposed to 

the poem "To a Mouse"? national banks. 

4. I have not decided I 7. Tell me he is 

am going to do. 8. I know it means. 



156 PARTS OF SPEECH 

(3) Supply who or whom and give a reason for your 
choice : 

1. Tell me planned this. 5. I do not know she is. 

2. I see you resemble. 6. Find out bought it. 

3. It is still a question as to 7. We are not sure this 

wrote "The Iliad.' ' message is from. 

4. He has not yet decided 8. He has not yet decided 

he will appoint as his assist- should be appointed as his 

ant. assistant. 



Relative Pronouns 

124. Relative Pronouns Defined. — Note this example: 

The girl who came today is my cousin. 

The pronoun who refers, or relates, directly to the 
noun girl, its antecedent. At the same time, as a con- 
nective, it joins to its antecedent the subordinate 
clause who came today. A pronoun, which, by referring, 
or relating, directly to its antecedent, joins to it a sub- 
ordinate clause, is called a relative pronoun. 

A relative pronoun is a pronoun that joins to its 
antecedent a subordinate clause. 

The relative pronouns are who, which, what, and that. 

125. Antecedent of the Relative. — The antecedent of a 
relative pronoun may be a noun, a pronoun, or other 
substantive; as, men who, he that, The Declaration of ' 
Independence which, etc. 

Sometimes the antecedent is not expressed but im- 
plied or included in the relative; as, 

Who (he who) steals my purse steals trash. 
What (that which) I have told you is true. 



PRONOUNS 157 

Occasionally the antecedent follows the relative; as, 

What a man thinks, that he is. 

Occasionally, in loosely constructed sentences, the antecedent is 
implied in a group of words, or is repeated after the relative in the 
form of a summarizing word, as fact, for better connection; thus, 

He came today, which (his coming today) was a surprise. 
He died without a will, which (fact) is not generally known. 

126. Relative Clauses. — A clause introduced by a 
relative pronoun is called a relative clause. 

Relative clauses are adjectival if the antecedent is 
expressed, substantive if the antecedent is omitted (53) ; as, 

He who wins must fight. (Who wins is an adjectival clause mod- 
ifying He. 

Take what you wish. (What you wish is a substantive clause 
used as the direct object of Take.) 

Relative clauses, like other subordinate clauses, are 
either essential to the thought or non-essential (57); as, 

The boy that came late is sick. 
Edward, who came late, is sick. 

That came late is essential to the thought because it 
tells what boy is meant. The mere expression the boy 
might apply to any boy. When we add that came late, 
we limit, or restrict, the application of the antecedent to 
a particular boy. A relative clause that limits, or 
restricts, the application of the antecedent is called a 
restrictive relative clause. 

On the other hand, who came late is not essential to 
the thought. It does not tell who is meant by the 
antecedent, for the word Edward is enough within itself 
to do that; it merely supplies additional information as 
to Edward. A relative clause that merely supplies 



158 PARTS OF SPEECH 

additional information is called an additive relative 
clause.* 

Restrictive relative clauses are not generally set off by 
punctuation; additive relative clauses are always set off. 

A relative clause is a clause introduced by a relative 
pronoun. 

A restrictive relative clause is a relative clause that 
limits, or restricts, the application of the antecedent. 

An additive relative clause is a relative clause that 
merely supplies additional information. 

Exercise 90 

(1) Point out the relative clauses in Exercise 36 and 
tell the antecedent of each. Point out five relative 
clauses used substantively in Exercise 35. 

(2) Tell whether each relative clause in Exercise 36 
is restrictive or additive and give a reason with each. 
Note the punctuation of each. 

* The Report of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature 
applies the terms descriptive, determinative, free, and forward-moving to 
the different types of relative clauses, and, in substance, explains these 
terms as follows: 

(1) A descriptive relative clause describes the antecedent like a descrip- 
tive adjective; as, Give me a man that is true (a true man). Such a 
clause is often foretold by "a." 

(2) A determinative relative clause tells who, which, or what is meant 
by the antecedent; as, Let the man who spoke arise. Such a clause is 
often foretold by the, this, or that. 

(3) A free relative clause could be omitted without leaving the 
thought incomplete; as, Let Mr. Smith, who is here, speak. 

(4) A forward-moving relative clause carries the story forward; as, 
He gave me an apple, which I ate (and I ate it). 

The foregoing terms may be employed if the authorities wish. The 
author employs restrictive because it is generally familiar, additive 
because it is simple and suggestive. 



PRONOUNS 159 

127. Inflection of Relative Pronouns. — Who is the only- 
relative pronoun inflected. It is declined like the inter- 
rogative pronoun who (121). 

Whose may be used as the possessive of which, espe- 
cially when whose would sound better than of which; 
as, The house whose roof was blown off has been 
repaired. 

While relative pronouns are not inflected for number 
and person, they agree in number and person with the 
antecedent. In other words, the same form of verb is 
used with a relative pronoun as with its antecedent; as, 
J who am, thou who art, he who is, we who are, etc. 

128. Uses of Relative Pronouns. — Relative pronouns 
are used as follows: 

(1) Who is applied chiefly to persons, sometimes to 

lower animals or even to things personified; as, 

They who reap must sow. 

The cur attacked Fido, who held his ground. 

Ye stars, who witness my misery, pity me! 

(2) Which is applied to everything except persons; as, 
the dog which, the hill which, etc. 

Formerly which was applied to persons also; as, 
Our Father which art in heaven. 

(3) What is applied to things. As what means that 
which, it implies or includes its antecedent; as, 

This is what (that which) I want. 

It is a vulgarism to use what after an antecedent; as, 
a man what, a dog what. Say "a man who or that" 
"a dog which or that." 

Sometimes what is followed by an antecedent; as, 
What I tell you, that I know. 



160 PARTS OF SPEECH 

(4) That is applied to everything — a person, a lower 
animal, or a thing without life; as, the boy that, the 
bird that, the rock that, etc. 

Unlike who or which, the relative pronoun that does not follow a 
preposition. For example, we may say "the boy that I spoke to" 
or "the boy to whom I spoke," but not "the boy to that I spoke." 

Again, as that makes close and immediate connection with the 
antecedent, it may introduce only a restrictive relative clause, while 
who or which may introduce either a restrictive or an additive rela- 
tive clause.* Note these examples: 

Restrictive Clauses Additive Clauses 

He is a person that (or whom) Henry, who (not that) is here, is 

you can trust. now ready to go. 

This is the thing that (or which) "The Raven," which (not that) 

I had in mind. Poe wrote, is a masterpiece. 

Relative pronouns have about the same grammatical 
uses as interrogative pronouns. As the relative pro- 
noun who has three case-forms, its grammatical uses are 
of especial importance. They are: 

Subject; as, It was I who spoke. 

Possessive modifier; as, She is the girl whose book was 
lost. 

Direct object; as, The boy whom you see is my cousin. 

With a preposition; as, It is William to whom I refer. 

As shown in the foregoing sentences, the case of a 
relative pronoun is determined by its use in its own 
clause, not by the case of its antecedent. 

* There is very little difference between the relative that and the 
relative who or which in the restrictive office. That, being a lighter 
word than who or which, may make a closer connection; but sometimes, 
because of euphony or emphasis, who or which is preferable. Note 
these examples: 

That man who fell died. (That man that does not sound well.) 
Brown is a man who, I think, is honest. {Who is a better word to 
pause on than the lighter word that.) 



PRONOUNS 161 

Exercise 91 

(1) Supply in each sentence an appropriate relative 
pronoun and give a reason for your choice: 

1. We are not always we seem. 

2. Mary, won the prize, is happy. 

3. Here is the knife you lent me. 

4. Dogs carry bones will bring them. 

5. This is the letter for you called. 

6. This is the letter you called for. 

7. John is looking for his pen, was lost. 

8. Here is the spot on the building stood. 

9. He goes to law holds a wolf by the ears. 

10. We believe that men try are likely to succeed. 

11. That story our teacher told us was interesting. 

12. A man will steal an egg will steal a horse also. 

13. Louis XIV, had the title of the Great King, dazzled 

his age. 

14. Those do they believe is right have the reward 

of a clear conscience. 

15. John Bunyan, wrote "Pilgrim's Progress," spent 

twelve years in Bedford jail. 

16. Bucephalus, was the favorite horse of Alexander the 

Great, was buried with great pomp. 

(2) Tell the grammatical use of each relative pro- 
noun supplied in the foregoing sentences, and point out 
the restrictive relative clauses in this exercise. 

(3) Supply the proper form of who in the following 
sentences and give a reason for your choice: 

1. We always like those admire us. 

2. Do you know that boy — I spoke to? 

3. Do you know that girl spoke to us? 

4. Those of we expect most often disappoint us. 

5. There's not a man that lives, has not known his god- 
like hours. 



162 PARTS OF SPEECH 

(4) Tell whether whose or of which sounds the better: 

1. We visited a city whose every building (every building of 
which) bore the marks of age. 

2. We spent there a fortnight, whose every moment (every mo- 
ment of which) was filled with interest and delight. 

129. Omission of the Relative. — The relative pronouns 
who, which, and that, in the objective case, are often 
omitted. Note these examples: 

That boy whom you see is John. That boy you see is John. 

This is the book which I want. This is the book I want. 

I found the pen that you lost. I found the pen you lost. 

Rarely, in poetry, the relative pronoun that used as the subject is 
omitted; as, 'Tis distance lends (that lends) enchantment to the 
view. 

Exercise 92 

Tell which of the relative pronouns in the first 
group of sentences in the preceding exercise may be 
omitted. 

130. As and But Used as Relative Pronouns. — As and 

but may be used as relative pronouns. Note these 

examples : 

Take such as you wish (those that you wish.) 
I am of the same opinion as he {that he is of). 
There is no one but thinks so (that does not think so). 

As here shown, as, when used as a relative pronoun, 
follows same or such; but, when used as a relative pro- 
noun, follows a negative expression and means that not. 

Same is also followed by that (sometimes by who or which), but 
with this difference in the thought: the same as usually means of the 
same kind; the same that means the same, or identical, person or thing. 
Note these examples: 

My work is the same as yours. (Of the same kind.) 

I saw the same man that you saw. (The identical man.) 



PRONOUNS 163 

If, however, the verb of the relative clause is omitted, only the 
same as can be used, and the foregoing distinction does not hold; as, 
He is from the same town as I (or, from the same town that I am 

from) . 

Exercise 93 

Supply the proper relative pronoun and give a reason 
for your choice: 

1. We admit only such 6. There was no one did 

are worthy. not speak to him. 

2. We admit only persons 7. This is the same horse 

are worthy. I used to own. 

3. I am taking the same course 8. The dog is not the same 

Elizabeth. kind of animal the 

4. I am taking the same course cat. 

you are taking. 9. There are few persons 

5. There was no one felt do not make mistakes. 

sorry for the poor man. 10. Concord is the same town 

■ — I visited. 



131. Compound Relative Pronouns. — Note these ex- 
amples : 

Whoever (any one who) wishes may come. 
Take whichever (any which) you choose. 
Do whatever (anything that) you think right. 

The pronouns whoever, whichever, and whatever are 
formed by adding ever to who, which, and what. 

Sometimes soever is added instead of ever; as, whoso- 
ever, whichsoever,, whatsoever. 

A pronoun formed by adding ever or soever to who, 
which, or what is called a compound relative pronoun. 

A compound relative pronoun is a pronoun formed by 
adding ever or soever to who, which, or what. 

Since a compound relative pronoun does not refer to a particular 
person or thing, it is also called an indefinite relative pronoun. 



164 PARTS OF SPEECH 

Whoso is an old form of whosoever. 
Sometimes the simple forms of the relative have the 
indefinite force of the compound forms; as 

Who (whoever) covets more is evermore a slave. 
You may do just what (whatever) you think best. ■ 

The antecedent of a compound relative is implied in 
the pronoun; as, 

A man reaps whatever (anything that) he sows. 

When, however, the relative clause precedes, the antecedent may 
be expressed; as, Whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap. 

Sometimes no antecedent is thought of and the relative clause 
has the force of an adverbial clause; as, 

Whatever (although anything) happens, be resolute. 

132. Inflection of Compound Relative Pronouns. — Only 
the compounds of who are inflected. They are declined 
as follows: 

Singular and Plural 

Nominative whoever, whosoever 
Possessive whosever, whosesoever 

Objective whomever, whomsoever 

The nominative and the objective case-forms are liable 
to be incorrectly used. Note the following examples of 
their correct use : 

Hand this to whoever calls for it. (Correct, because whoever is the 
subject of calls.) 

Hand this to whomever you see. (Correct, because whomever is 
the direct object of see.) 

In both the foregoing sentences the entire relative 
clause, and not the relative pronoun, is used with the 
preposition to. 



PRONOUNS 165 

Exercise 94 

(1) Tell why the following italicized pronouns are in 
the proper case: 

1. Stop whoever approaches. 

2. Stop whomever you may meet. 

3. Give this to whoever calls for it. 

4. Give this to whomever you see first. 

(2) Supply whoever or whomever and give a reason for 
your choice: 

1. God helps helps himself. 

2. touches pitch will be defiled. 

3. Opportunity opens the door to knocks. 

4. Nature tells wondrous secrets to has a listening ear. 

Indefinite Pronouns 

133. Indefinite Pronouns Defined. — Note these ex- 
amples : 

Many are called but few are chosen. 

The italicized words are pronouns because they stand 
for nouns, but they do not refer to particular persons 
or things. A pronoun that does not refer to a particular 
person or thing is called an indefinite pronoun. 

An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that does not refer 
to a particular person or thing. 

Indefinite pronouns belong in the following groups: 

(1) Words of number and quantity: all, any, both, few, many, sev- 
eral, some. 

(2) Distributives: each, either, neither. 

(3) Comparatives: other, such. 

(4) Reciprocals: each other, one another. 

(5) Compounds of any, every, no, and some, with one, body, and 
thing: any one, anybody, anything, every one, everybody, none, nobody, 
nothing, some one, somebody, something. 



166 PARTS OF SPEECH 

134. Inflection of Indefinite Pronouns. — One and other 
are the only indefinite pronouns that have plural forms. 
They are declined like nouns, thus: 





Sing. 


Plur. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Nom. Obj. 


one 


ones 


other 


others 


Possessive 


one's 


ones' 


other's 


others' 



Reciprocals, also compounds of one and body with any, 
every, no, and some, form the possessive singular; as, 
each other's, one another's, any one's, anybody's, etc. 

Indefinite pronouns are the only pronouns that admit 
the apostrophe in forming the possessive case. 

135. Indefinite Pronouns Discriminated. — The indefi- 
nite pronouns of the following groups are synonymous. 
Note these distinctions: 

(1) Each, all. — Each and all apply to the entire number, each 
individually, all collectively; as, Let each of us get ready and all 
advance together. 

(2) Each, both, either. — Each applies to two or more taken sep- 
arately, both to two taken together, either to one of two: as, Each of 
the two solutions seems to be correct, but both are wrong; You may 
have either of the two apples but not both. 

(3) Either, any. — Either applies to two, any to more than two; 
as, Take either of the two or any of the five. 

(4) Neither, none. — Neither applies to two, none to more than 
two: as, Neither of the twins is living; None of the family is well. 

(5) Each other, one another. — Each other and one another are used 
interchangeably, but sometimes this distinction is made: each other 
applies to two, one another to more than two. Thus, John and 
James are fond of each other; John, James, and George are fond of 
one another. 

(6) Few, a few. — Few has a negative force and is opposed to 
many; a few means some and does not imply opposition: as, I am 
sorry that few are satisfied; I am glad that a few will remain. 



PRONOUNS 167 

Exercise 95 

Choose between the two expressions and give a reason 
for your choice: 

1. Each (all) came in together. 

2. Each (all) came bearing a palm leaf. 

3. We have lost neither (none) of the two. 

4. We have saved neither (none) of the six. 

5. I am glad that a few (few) of you are well. 

6. I am glad that a few (few) of you are sick. 

7. You have no use for either (any) of the two. 

8. I have no use for either (any) of the three. 

9. We are commanded to love each other (one another). 

10. Mary and Jane are fond of each other (one another). 

11. You may have either of the books but not both (both of the 
books but not either). 

12. Each (both) said the other was wrong, but each (both) agreed 
to let me settle the dispute. 

136. Personal Pronouns Used Indefinitely. — We, you, or 
they may be used indefinitely, meaning one, a person, or 
people; thus, 

We (a person) may try and yet fail. 
You (one) cannot please everybody. 
They (people) say that he is wealthy. 

137. Agreement of Pronoun and Antecedent. — A pro- 
noun agrees with its antecedent in gender and number; 
thus, 

Father says that he is not well. 
Margaret asked me to assist her. 
The tree supports itself by its roots. 
These men were praising themselves. 

We have seen (109, 2) that the masculine forms he, his, and him 
are used in referring to a singular antecedent that applies to persons 
of either sex; as, Let every one make himself (not themselves) agree- 
able. 



168 PARTS OF SPEECH 

Sometimes the feminine form of the pronoun is combined with 
the masculine; as, Every boy and girl should do his or her part 
well. This form of reference, however, is clumsy and should be 
avoided unless required by exactness. 

She is commonly used instead of he in referring indefinitely to 
elementary teachers; as, The teacher should plan her work well. 

Careful writers and speakers prefer to repeat the pronoun one 
rather than to use he; as, One should stand by one's convictions. 

It does not sound well, however, to use one three or more times 
in the same connection; as, One should help one's friends whenever 
one can. In such cases it is better to recast the sentence; thus, We 
should help our friends whenever we can, or A man should help his 
friends whenever he can. 

Care should be taken not to use a plural form of 
pronoun in referring to a singular antecedent. Note 
the following examples: 

Somebody has left his (not their) hat here. 

Let each one of us be on his (not our or their) guard. 

If a fool knows a secret, he tells (not they tell) it. 

Every human being has within him (not them) something eternal. 

Care should also be taken to use the correct number 
of pronoun in referring to a collective noun or a com- 
pound expression. Note the following examples: 

The jury has rendered its verdict. (The jury is thought of as a 
whole.) 

The jury are divided in their opinion. (The individuals compos- 
ing the jury are thought of.) 

Our secretary and treasurer has made his report. (One person 
acts as secretary and treasurer.) 

Our secretary and our treasurer have made their reports. (The 
secretary and the treasurer are two persons.) 

We have learned (127) that a relative pronoun agrees 
with its antecedent in number and person, 



PRONOUNS 169 



Exercise 96 



Choose the proper form and give a reason for your 
choice : 

1. The ship lost its (her) rudder. 

2. Let everybody be on his (their) guard. 

3. My horse has injured itself (himself). 

4. Let every one here do his (their) best. 

5. The committee has made their (its) report. 

6. Not one of them would express themselves (himself). 

7. Every teacher should love her (his, his or her) work. 

8. I urge every boy and girl here to do his (his or her, their) 
duty. 

9. Every writer should be in sympathy with their (his, his or 
her) readers. 

10. If one (we) could see one's self (ourselves) as others see one 
(us), one (we) might correct one's (our) faults. 

Exercise 97 
(Review) 

(1) Make out a list of pronouns inflected for (a) per- 
son, gender, number, and case; (6) person, number, and 
case; (c) number only; (d) case only. Make out a list 
of pronouns not inflected. 

(2) Explain why the italicized pronouns are of the 
proper gender: 

1. The child hurt itself. 

2. America is proud of her sons. 

3. The wren sang its little song. 

4. The soldier freely gave his life. 

5. The cat watches her chance to spring. 

6. Let every person here look out for himself. 

7. The storm smote the hills with his mighty blasts. 

8. Every man and woman should take an interest in his or her 
community. 



170 PARTS OF SPEECH 

(3) Choose the proper form and give a reason for 
your choice: 

1. It was no fault of him (his). 

2. It was not I (me) that spoke. 

3. Who (whom) do you want to see? 

4. This is for Charles and I (me). 

5. I will ride my (mine) own horse. 

6. James is proud of himself (hisself). 

7. The child cried for it's (its) mother. 

8. It is not for we (us) girls to decide. 

9. Who (whom) do you suppose these men are? 

10. Sarah and I -(me and Sarah) will be there. 

11. They have all returned but Henry and I (me). 

12. Men like to hear themselves (theirselves) praised. 

13. Nobody knows about this but he and I (him and me). 

14. There were only five present besides Edward and me (myself). 

15. I promise you that William and myself (I, me) will meet 
you there. 

(4) Choose the proper relative or interrogative pro- 
noun and give a reason for your choice: 

1. Who (which) of you will go with me? 

2. The boy which (whom) you see is a senior. 

3. This is the same train as (that) we came on. 

4. There is no one but (who) desires to be happy. 

5. I do not know which (whom) of the boys is to blame. 

6. There is no one that (what) believes this report. 

7. I have not found out what (which) of the roads to take. 

8. The men and the cattle which (that) perished were thrown 
overboard. 

9. He is now living in London, which (that) is the capital of 
England. 

10. William Caxton, who (that) introduced printing into England, 
learned the art of printing in Flanders. 

(5) Write sentences to illustrate: (a) the correct use 
of whoever and whomever; (b) the omission of the ante- 
cedent of the relative; (c) the omission of the relative. 



PRONOUNS 171' 

(6) Write sentences to illustrate the correct use of 
the indefinite pronouns each, all, either, both, neither, 
none, any, few, and a few. 

(7) Make out a list of what you regard as the most 
common mistakes in the use of pronouns, and in each 
case tell the correct form. 

138. Parsing of Pronouns. — To parse a pronoun we tell 
the following: 

(1) Class. 

(2) Antecedent if it is a relative pronoun. 

(3) Person if it is a personal or a relative pronoun.* 

(4) Gender. 

(5) Number. 

(6) Case. 

(7) Grammatical use. 

Models for parsing pronouns: 

Whoever told him this was mistaken. 
We are commanded to love one another. 

1. Whoever is a compound relative pronoun, the antecedent of 
which is implied, third person, masculine or feminine gender, singu- 
lar number, nominative case, subject of the verb told. 

2. Him is a personal pronoun, third person, masculine gender, 
singular number, objective case, indirect object of the verb told. 

3. This is a demonstrative pronoun, neuter gender, singular num- 
ber, objective case, direct object of the verb told. 

4. We is a personal pronoun, first person, masculine or feminine 
gender, plural number, nominative case, subject of the verb-phrase 
are commanded. 

5. One another is an indefinite reciprocal pronoun, masculine or 
feminine gender, singular number, objective case, direct object of 
the infinitive to love. 

* Other pronouns are regularly of the third person. Their person 
can be told in parsing if the teacher prefers, 



172 PARTS OF SPEECH 

Exercise 98 

Parse the pronouns in the following sentences: 

1. He lives long that lives well. 

2. Few shall part where many meet! 

3. I know everything except myself. 

4. All I know is that I know nothing. 

5. Who is this that lights the wigwam? 

6. This is the best world that we live in. 

7. None are so deaf as those who will not hear. 

8. Tell me thy company and I will tell thee what 

thou art. 

9. It is not what we eat, but what we digest, that 

makes us strong. 
10. The bird that soars on highest wing, 
Builds on the ground her lowly nest; 
And she that doth most sweetly sing, 
Sings in the shade when all things rest. 

SUMMARY OF PRONOUNS 

I. Kinds (104) : 

1. Personal (105-118) 

Compound Personal (117, 118) 

2. Demonstrative (119, 120) 

3. Interrogative (121-123) 

4. Relative (124-132) 

Compound Relative (131, 132) 

5. Indefinite (133-136) 

II. Inflectional Forms: 

1. Person (105, 107, 117, 127, 138, 3 and foot-note) 

a. First 

b. Second 

c. Third 

2. Gender (108-112, 138, 4) 

a. Masculine (108, 109) 

b. Feminine (108, 110) 

c. Neuter (108, 111, 112) 



PRONOUNS 173 

* 

3. Number (107, 119, 121, 127, 134, 138, 5) 

a. Singular 

b. Plural 

4. Case (113-116, 121, 127, 134, 138, 6) 

a. Nominative 

b. Possessive 

c. Objective 

III. Grammatical Uses: 

1. Nominative Case (114, 120, 122, 128, 132) 

a. Subject 

b. Subjective Complement 

c. Nominative of Address 

d. Nominative of Exclamation 

e. Nominative Absolute 

2. Objective Case (115, 120, 122, 128, 132) 

a. Direct Object 

b. Objective Complement 

c. Indirect Object 

d. With a Preposition 

e. In Exclamations 

3. Possessive Case (116, 122, 128, 134) 

a. Adjectival Use (116, 1) 
6. Substantive Use (116, 2) 



Chapter III 
ADJECTIVES 

139. Kinds of Adjectives. — We have learned (15) that 
an adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a pro- 
noun. 

Adjectives fall into two general divisions: 

(1) Adjectives that denote a quality or a condition of 
anything; as, happy people, sleepy children. These an- 
swer the question of what kind, or in what condition. 
An adjective that denotes a quality or a condition of 
anything is called a descriptive adjective. 

A descriptive adjective is an adjective that denotes a 
quality or a condition of anything. 

Adjectives derived from proper nouns, as Mexican, 
Christian, European, are a kind of descriptive adjective. 
They are called proper adjectives, and, like the nouns from 
which they are derived, they are capitalized. 

(2) Adjectives used to point out or number; as, that 
man, this moment, each day, ten months. These answer 
the question which, what, how many, or how much. An 
adjective used to point out or number is called a limiting 
adjective. 

A limiting adjective is an adjective used to point out 
or number. 

Limiting adjectives are of three kinds: 

(a) Articles; as, a horse, the dog. 

(b) Pronominal adjectives; as, that land, which way, 
what course. 

(c) Numeral adjectives; as, five years, third day. 

174 



ADJECTIVES 175 

Exercise 99 

(1) Point out the adjectives and tell which are de- 
scriptive and which are limiting: 

1. That tall boy is my cousin. 

2. We all felt sleepy and exhausted. 

3. The day was clear and the sky was blue. 

4. On every side were lofty snow-capped peaks. 

5. On the second day we killed five buffaloes. 

6. Common as light is love, and its familiar voice wearies not 
ever. 

7. The Colonel told us several interesting stories of his youthful 
pranks. 

8. This unfortunate man has lost his entire estate through reck- 
less speculation. 

(2) With the aid of *a dictionary make out a list of 

the proper adjectives corresponding to the following 

nouns : 

England Japan Brazil Chile Italy North 

America Turkey Portugal France Canada South 

140. The Articles. — Note these examples: 

The postman brought me a letter. 
The adjectives The and a are called articles. There 
are two articles — the and a or an. 

(1) The is a weakened form of that. It is called the 
definite article. 

(2) A or an is a weakened form of one. It is called 
the indefinite article. 

A and an are different forms of the same word. A is 
used before consonant sounds, an before vowel sounds; as, 

A plank, a one (as if wone), a unit (as if i/unit). 
An oak, an apple, an orange, an hour (as if our). 
Either a or an may be used before words beginning with h and 
not accented on the first syllable; as a or an hotel, a or an historian. 



176 PARTS OF SPEECH 

Exercise 100 

Supply a or an in each blank and give a reason for 
your choice: 

1. Lend me pen, Charles. 7. He is European. 

2. Tell me what engine is. 8. I saw very tall build- 

3. You are now heiress. ing. 

4. He is Unitarian. 9. They belong to union. 

5. She is now in hospital. 10. He formed historical 

6. It is humorous story. society. 

141. Uses of the Articles. — Both articles are used in 
pointing out or designating something, but each has its 
special function. 

The definite article the is used: 

(1) To point out one or more' particular objects: as, 
Here is the house; Who is the man speaking? 

(2) With a singular noun referring to a class rather 
than to a particular individual: as, The teacher is 
poorly paid; The horse is a useful animal. 

(3) With adjectives having the force of plural nouns; 
as, the good, the brave, the beautiful. 

The indefinite article a or an is used: 

(1) To designate a single object in a general way: as, 
I saw a lion; Here is an apple. 

(2) In the sense of any: as, An orange is round; A 
plain is flat. 

A or an, however, is not used like the in designating a class; as, 
A dog is a faithful animal. Say " The dog is a faithful animal." 

(3) In the sense of each or every; as, two dollars a 
day (each day), twice a month (every month). 

The article may be helpful in promoting clearness : as, a sheep 
(one sheep), sheep (more than one); the secretary and treasurer (one 
person), the secretary and the treasurer (two persons); a white and 



ADJECTIVES 



177 



red flag (one flag), a white and a red flag (two flags). Note that 
the article is repeated when more than one thing is meant. 

The article may be used unnecessarily; as, this kind of a person 
(of "person), that form of a sentence (of sentence). 

Sometimes the is an adverb, not an article; as, The more, the 
merrier. 

Sometimes a is an old form of preposition; as, He went a-fishing. 



Exercise 101 



(1) Supply the proper article 
a reason for your choice: 



in each blank and give 



1. Who is 



new teacher? 



7. 



noun is 



2. Have you ever seen 8. What is 

mountain? — 

3. Mary is person that 9. 



— name, 
shape of 



- pineapple? 
river is — 



4. 



gave me pear. 

loving are dar- 10. 



ing. 



large 

stream of water. 
Have you knife with 

you? 



cat belongs to 



same family as 

6. He earns five dollars 
day. 



tiger. 



11. 
12. 



mocking-bird is 

very fine singer. 
Is tomato - 



fruit or 



vegetable? 



(2) Supply an article before 
one is needed: 



the italicized words if 



1. Man is immortal. 

2. Whale is largest animal. 

3. Who ever saw such person? 

4. What kind of tree is this? 

5. Bring me a block and tackle. 

6. A farmer and merchant were here. 

7. A friend and schoolmate of mine was along. 

8. Can you imagine what sort of thing this is? 

9. He added both an east and west wing to his house. 

10. The north and south pole are equally distant from the equator. 



178 PARTS OF SPEECH 

142. Pronominal Adjectives. — We have learned (103) 
that some words — this, that, many, few, and the like — 
may be either pronouns or adjectives according to use. 
When a word of this kind is used as an adjective it is 
called a pronominal adjective. 

Pronominal adjectives are of the following kinds:* 

(1) Demonstrative adjectives — this, that, these, those; 
as, this house, that tree. 

The demonstrative adjectives this and that are declined like the 
demonstrative pronouns this and that (119). No other adjectives 
are inflected for number. 

Yon and yonder are also demonstrative adjectives, but are never 
pronouns. They are used to point out something in sight; as, 
Look at yon hill. 

The use of them for those, as them boys, is a vulgarism. It is 
also incorrect to add here to this and there to that; as, this here boy, 
that there girl. Say "this boy," "that girl." 

(2) Interrogative adjectives — which, what : as, which 

way? what time? 

Which differs from what in being selective (122, 3) : as, Which plan 
(of a certain number) shall I adopt? What plan (of all possible) 
shall we pursue? 

(3) Relative adjectives — which, whichever, whatever: as, 
He was here in June, during which month I was away; 
Whichever way I turn, I see strange sights. 

(4) Indefinite adjectives — all, any, both, few, many, 

several, some, each, every, either, neither, other, such; as, 

all objects, other men, such words. 

For a discrimination of the synonymous words of this group, see 
page 166. 

* The report of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature 
recommends that my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their, and whose be 
treated as possessive adjectives (106, foot-note). 

This recommendation can be followed if the authorities prefer. 



ADJECTIVES 179 

Few and many in the expressions a few and a great many are 
used as nouns; as, a few days (of days), a great many of them. 

(5) The intensive adjective very and the identifying 
adjective same; as, the very man, the same hour. 

Exercise 102 

(1) Point out the pronominal adjectives in the follow- 
ing expressions and classify each: 

1. That day. 5. Yon mountain. 9. Neither plan. 

2. Those children. 6. EJvery moment. 10. Few persons. 

3. Whichever course. 7. The very hour. 11. All nations. 

4. Whatever purpose. 8. The same year. 12. Which picture? 

(2) Choose between the two expressions and give a 
reason for your choice: 

1. Who is that (that there) man? 

2. Do you know those (them) boys? 

3. Do you like that (those) molasses? 

4. This (these) news will surprise him. 

5. I like neither one (none) of the four. 

6. I am very fond of this (these) kind of stories. 

7. To what (which) part of speech does James belong? 

8. By what (which) man was the Pacific Ocean discovered? 

9. I cannot decide what (which) one of these pictures I like best. 
10. Very tall buildings stand on either side (both sides) of the 

street. 

143. Numeral Adjectives. — Adjectives used in number- 
ing, as five, fifth, and the like, are called numeral adjec- 
tives. They are of two kinds: 

(1) Cardinal (" chief") numerals, or numeral adjectives 
that tell how many; as, ten boys, a dozen eggs. 

(2) Ordinal numerals, or numeral adjectives that tell 
in what order or rank; as, sixth day, eighth boy. 



180 PARTS OF SPEECH 

Ordinal numerals are also used to tell the part of a 
thing; as, a third, three-fourths. 

With the exception of first, second, and third, ordinal 
numerals are formed from cardinal numerals by adding 
th to the cardinal form; as, seventh, tenth, etc. 

Properly speaking, hundred, thousand, million, etc., are nouns. 
They are commonly modified by adjectives and may be pluralized; 
as, five hundred, fifty thousand, millions. A hundred men means "a 
hundred of men." 

Other numerals may be used substantively; as, forty of them, by 
twos, one tenth of it. 

Couple refers to two things united or closely related, as a married 
couple. It should not be used in the ordinary sense of two, as a 
couple of dollars. Say "two dollars." 

Exercise 103 

Classify the numeral adjectives and tell which are 
used as nouns: 

1. Send me two dozen eggs. 

2. He came on the fifth day. 

3. I have sold fifteen pounds. 

4. Ten fell in the first charge. 

5. Only a fourth of them remain. 

6. He is worth five million dollars. 

7. Hundreds of men have returned home. 

8. Five thousand men volunteered for the service. 

9. The man has lived his three score years and ten. 
10. Fully twenty couples were present on that occasion. 

144. Comparison of Adjectives. — Adjectives may be in- 
flected to denote a difference of degree; thus, 

James is tall. 

John is taller than James. 

Henry is the tallest of the three. 



ADJECTIVES 181 

Tall is the simple form of the adjective. Taller de- 
notes that John possesses more of the quality of tallness 
than James. Tallest denotes, that, of the three persons 
compared, Henry possesses the highest degree of the 
quality. A change in the form of an adjective to de- 
note a difference of degree is called comparison. 

The simple form of an adjective is called the positive 
degree. 

The form of an adjective which denotes that one ob- 
ject possesses more of a quality than another object is 
called the comparative degree. 

The form of an adjective which denotes that one of a 
certain number of objects possesses the highest degree 
of a quality is called the superlative degree. 

Comparison is a change in the form of an adjective to 
denote a difference of degree. 

The positive degree is the simple form of an adjective. 

The comparative degree is the form of an adjective 
which denotes that one object possesses more of a qual- 
ity than another object. 

The superlative degree is the form of an adjective 
which denotes that one of a certain number of objects 
possesses the highest degree of a quality. 

The positive degree denotes a quality in an absolute sense, with- 
out suggesting a comparison, and may express a higher degree than 
either the comparative or the superlative, which denotes a quality 
in a relative sense; thus, 

He is old (that is, advanced in years). 

Alice, who is five, is one year older than Jane. 

James, who is ten, is the oldest of the four children. 

Sometimes the superlative denotes a very high degree of quality, 
without suggesting a comparison; as, my dearest mother. 

As we shall see later, adverbs are also compared. 



182 



PARTS OF SPEECH 



145. Two Methods of Comparison. — Adjectives may be 
compared in two ways: 

(1) By inflection, as shown in the foregoing examples. 
— The comparative is formed by adding er to the posi- 
tive, the superlative by adding est to the positive; as, 
dear, dearer, dearest 

(2) By using the adverbs more and most with the 
positive. — This method is employed when the adding of 
er or est would make the adjective hard to pronounce; 
as, sacred, more sacred, most sacred. 

Adjectives of one syllable and some adjectives of two 
syllables are generally compared by inflection; adjec- 
tives of more than two syllables and some adjectives 
of two syllables are generally compared by using more 
and most. Only the ear can decide which of the two 
methods is the better. 

Sometimes either method of comparison may be em- 
ployed; as, noble, nobler or more noble, noblest or most 
noble. 

If, however, an object possesses more of one quality than of 
another, more is used; as, He is more old (not older) than wise. 

Exercise 104 



Compare the following adjectives, judging by the ear 
which of the two methods of comparison to employ: 



swift 


righteous 


beautiful 


handsome 


courageous 


gallant 


intelligent 


ripe 


religious 


light 


broad 


simple 


green 


happy 


warm 


true 


fair 


red 


safe 


hot 


heavy 


just 


honest 


unsafe 


cold 


aged 


charitable 


fearless 


brave 


wealthy 



ADJECTIVES 



183 



146. Irregular Comparison. — The comparison of the 
following adjectives is irregular: 



Positive 

bad) 
ill ) 
far 

fore 

good? 
well ) 

late 



Compar. 

worse 

farther 

former 

better 

i later 
(latter 



Superl. 

worst 

farthest 

( foremost 
/first 

best 

i latest 
(last 



Positive 

little 

many) 
much) 

near 
old 



Compar. 

(less 
(lesser 

more 

nearer 

( older 
I elder 



Superl. 
least 

most 

\ nearest 
(next 

j oldest 
I eldest 



A few comparative and superlative adjectives are de- 
rived from adverbs; thus, 



Positive Compar. Superl. 



Positive Compar. 



(forth) further 



(in) 



inner 



(furthest 
( furthermost 

\ innermost 
( inmost 



(out) 



(up) 



j outer 
( utter 

upper 



Superl. 

C outermost 
< outmost 
( utmost 

{ uppermost 
( upmost 



Other words have a kind of superlative ending in most; as, mid- 
most, topmost, undermost, northernmost, etc. 

Further means additional; as, a further discussion. It should not 
be used in the sense of more distant; as, the further city. Say "the 
farther city." 

Later and latest suggest time; as, a later hour, the latest (most 
recent) edition. Latter implies a division and is often opposed to 
former; as, the latter part of the day. Last implies finality; as, his 
last words. 

Lesser is used in such expressions as the lesser of two evils. 

Elder applies only to persons; as, the elder brother. It should not 
be used when than follows; as, He is elder than I. Say "He is older 
than I." 



184 PARTS OF SPEECH 

Exercise 105 

Choose between the two expressions and give a reason 
for your choice: 

1. Is she worse (iller) today? 6. He is more rich (richer) than 

2. I cannot make you a farther noble. 

(further) loan. 7. You are my first (foremost) 

3. The farther (further) bank is choice. 

steep. 8. He is the first (foremost) 

4. I am two years older (elder) lawyer in the state. 

than he. 9. I did not enjoy the latter 

5. The older (elder) horse is the (later) part of the book. 

more valuable. 10. This is a much later (latter) 

edition. 

147. Adjectives not Compared. — The meaning of many 
adjectives is such as not to admit of comparison; as, 
the, this, every, twenty, equal, yearly, dead, matchless, 
everlasting, unanimous, etc. 

Some adjectives, in their simple form, may denote quality in the 
highest degree; as, perfect, complete, universal, supreme, correct, 
square, etc. Such adjectives, however, are not always used in a 
strictly superlative sense, but are sometimes thought of as denoting 
quality in a high degree rather than in the highest degree and are 
therefore compared; as, more perfect, most complete, etc. 

When a greater degree of accuracy is desired, the comparison may 
be made by using more nearly and most nearly; as, Which of the 
two figures is the more nearly square? 

Exercise 106 

(1) Tell which of the following adjectives may be 

compared and which may not, and give a reason with 

each: 

forty other huge heavenly right unique 

true monthly pathless accurate wrong patriotic 

fine immortal miserable fifth correct eternal 

religious sick infinite one-sided partisan perpetual 



ADJECTIVES 185 

(2) Choose between the two expressions and give a 
reason for your choice: 

1. Your answer is correct (most correct). 

2. Whose election was the most (most nearly) unanimous? 

3. This is the most (most nearly) universal custom in the tribe. 

4. Which of these two apples seems to be the rounder (more 
nearly round). 

148. Use of the Comparative and the Superlative. — The 

comparative degree is used in comparing two things, the 

superlative in comparing more than two things; thus, 

He is the younger of the two. 
She is the youngest of the three. 

Care must be taken not to compare a thing with itself; as, Texas 
is larger than any state (hence, larger than itself). Say "Texas is 
larger than any other state." 

The superlative should not be followed by the phrase of any; as, 
Texas is the largest of any state. Say " Texas is the largest of all 
the states," or simply "Texas is the largest state." 

Why is it incorrect to say "Henry is the youngest of his brothers"? 

Exercise 107 
Choose the proper form and give a reason for your 
choice : 

1. Which is the younger (youngest), you or Mary? 

2. Which is the heavier (heaviest), ice or water? 

3. Which of the four men is the stronger (strongest)? 

4. Iron is the most useful of any metal (all metals). 

5. New York is larger than any (any other) city in the United 
States. 

6. Margaret is the oldest of her sisters (older than any of her 
sisters). 

7. "The Times" has the largest circulation of any paper (all 
papers) in the city. 

8. Shakespeare was the greatest of his contemporaries (greater 
than any of his contemporaries). 



186 PARTS OF SPEECH 

149. Relation of Adjective to Substantive.— There are 
three ways in which an adjective may be related to a 
substantive : 

(1) As an adherent modifier; as, It was a bright day. 

Here the relation is close and direct. It is called adherent 
because the adjective adheres, or clings, as it were, to the word mod- 
ified. This relation is sometimes called the attributive. 

Pronouns are rarely so modified (102). We may say "the honest 
man," but not "the honest he." 

(2) As an appositive modifier; as, The day, bright at 
first, soon grew dark. 

Here the relation is somewhat loose and indirect. It is called 
appositive because the relation of the adjective to the word modified 
is like that of an appositive noun. 

An appositive adjective often, but not always, follows the word 
modified and is set off by punctuation. 

(3) As a predicate modifier; as, The day was bright. 

Here the adjective is related to the word modified through the 
medium of the verb. It may be related to the subject (subjective 
complement, 31), as, I am happy; or to the direct object (objective 
complement, 34), as, This makes me happy. 

A predicate adjective may be used after the verbs be, become, get, 
grow, seem, appear, look, feel, taste, smell, remain, continue, and the 
like; as, 

I am (become, get, grow, or feel) tired. 

This peach is (looks, tastes, or smells) ripe. 

The province was (remained or continued) loyal. 

As we shall see later (161), the function of a predicate adjective 
after certain verbs is liable to be confounded with that an of adverb. 

Exercise 108 

(1) Point out the adjectives in Exercise 9 and tell 
how each is related to the word modified. 



ADJECTIVES 187 

(2) Point out the adjectives in the following sentences 
and tell how each is related to the word modified: 

1. Callest thou me good? 

2. To thine own self be true. 

3. Life is too short for mean anxieties. 

4. Sure is the soul, and wise and simple. 

5. The soft blue sky did never melt into his heart. 

6. Grand, gloomy, and peculiar, he sat upon the throne a scep- 
tered tyrant. 

150. Words or Groups of Words Used as Adjectives. — 
Words not properly classed as adjectives, also groups of 
words, may be used with the force of adjectives. Note 
the following instances: 

(1) Nouns; as, a silver spoon, an iron bridge, a party 
measure. Especially names of material are so used. 

(2) Adverbs; as, the then minister, the down train. 

Adverbs are rarely so used. Such expressions as "quite a dis- 
tance," etc., are to be avoided. Say "a long distance or way." 

(3) Infinitives; as, a house to let. . 

(4) Participles; as, the man talking to you. 

(5) Possessive modifiers; as, John's pen, my knife. 

(6) Phrases; as, a man of honor, the way to do this. 

(7) Clauses; as, the place where he stood, the man that 
you spoke to. 

151. Adjectives Used as Other Parts of Speech. — Some- 
times adjectives are used with the force of other parts 
of speech, namely: 

(1) Plural nouns; as, the brave, the faithful. 

Adjectives so used are regularly accompanied by the article the. 
They generally refer to persons, but occasionally have the force of 
abstract nouns; as, the beautiful, the sublime, the mysterious. 

Proper adjectives may become nouns and be inflected; as, an 
American, an American's, many Americans. 



188 PARTS OF SPEECH 

(2) Adverbs; as, Soft sighed the lute. 

The use of adjectives as adverbs is confined to poetry. Such 
expressions as "some better," "real glad," etc., are colloquial. 

Exercise 109 

Classify the italicized expressions and tell the use of 
each: 

1. He came on an up train. 

2. The good will be rewarded. 

3. Who was the then ambassador? 

4. Your methods are not my methods. 

5. The above statement is not true. 

6. Now the bells peal loud and clear. 

7. There is only one course to follow. 

8. Arising, he thus addressed the chair. 

9. The hour when we should start has come. 

10. She is deeply interested in charity work. 

11. He went from the sublime to the ridiculous. 

12. A stone wall was built along the entire river front. 

Exercise 110 
(Review) 

(1) Tell whether to use a or an before these nouns: 

eagle hawk Hebrew heir ear eye unicorn 

potato oyster harmonica year hermit offering umbrella 

(2) Supply a, an, or the in each blank and give a 
reason for your choice: 

1. What is preposition? 

2. Have you ever seen elephant? 

3. He spent his life among poor. 

4. sun is center of solar system. 

5. patriot is man that loves his country. 

6. Is chestnut tree native of North America? 



ADJECTIVES 189 

(3) Choose between the two forms and give a reason 
for your choice: 

1. Who are those (them) boys? 

2. Which (what) way did he go? 

3. Who is that (that there) man? 

4. Father is worse (iller) today. 

5. The hat cost two (a couple of) dollars. 

6. Do you like this (these) kind of roses? 

7. At what (which) hour shall I expect you? 

8. Which is the less (lesser) of the two evils? 

9. The news was truer (more true) than pleasant. 

10. Which is the best (better) speaker, he or John? 

11. I wish my farm were squarer (more nearly square). 

12. He is abler than any (any other) man in his party. 

13. He is the ablest man (ablest of any man) in his party. 

14. Alice is beautifuler (more beautiful) than her sister. 

15. Quite an amount (a large amount) of money was squandered. 

16. Which city is the farther (further) from Memphis, New York 
or Chicago? 

152. Parsing of Adjectives. — To parse an adjective we 
tell the following: 

(1) Class. 

(2) Degree of comparison if it is compared. 

(3) Grammatical use. 

Models for parsing adjectives: 

This man, formerly poor, is now rich. 

1. This is a pronominal adjective, demonstrative, used as an 
adherent modifier of the noun man. 

2. Poor is a descriptive adjective, in the positive degree; compared, 
poor, poorer, poorest; used as an appositive modifier of the noun man. 

3. Rich is a descriptive adjective, in the positive degree; com- 
pared, rich, richer, richest; used as a predicate modifier, or subjective 
complement. 

Exercise 111 

Parse the adjectives in Exercises 9 and 73. 



190 PARTS OF SPEECH 

SUMMARY OF ADJECTIVES 

I. Kinds (139-143). 

1. Descriptive (139, 1) 

Proper 

2. Limiting (139, 2, 140-143) 

a. Articles (140, 141) 

(1) Definite (140, 1, 141) 

(2) Indefinite (140, 2, 141) 

b. Pronominals (142) 

(1) Demonstrative 

(2) Interrogative 

(3) Relative 

(4) Indefinite 

(5) Intensive and Identifying 

c. Numerals (143) 

(1) Cardinals 

(2) Ordinals 

II. Comparison (144-148). 

1. Degrees (144, 148): Positive, Comparative, Superlative 

2. Methods of Comparison (145, 146) 

a. By Inflection (145, 1) 

b. By "Using More and Most (145, 2) 

c. Irregular (146) 

III. Grammatical Uses — Relations (149). 

1. Adherent Modifier 

2. Appositive Modifier 

3. Predicate Modifier: Subjective Complement, Objective 

Complement 



Chapter IV 



ADVERBS 

We have learned (17) that an adverb is a word used 
to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Ad- 
verbs may be classified according to meaning, use, or 
form. 

153. Adverbs Classified According to Meaning. — Ad- 
verbs, if classified according to meaning, are of the 
following kinds: 

(1) Adverbs of time; as, Now he strikes. 

(2) Adverbs of place; as, Here we are, John. 

(3) Adverbs of manner; as, They ran fast. 

(4) Adverbs of degree; as, We are very glad. 

(5) Adverbs of cause; as, Hence I am returning. 

(6) Numeral adverbs; as, It happened twice. 

(7) Modal adverbs, or adverbs denoting certainty, un- 
certainty, or negation: as, I will surely come; Perhaps he 
will go; She did not arrive. 

Yes and no are sometimes called responsives. They are used in 
replying to questions, and may stand for an entire assertion: as, 
Will you go? — Yes (I will go); Did you call? — No (I did not call). 
As these words were formerly adverbs, they are still so classed. 

Exercise 112 

Classify the adverbs in Exercise 11 according to 

meaning. 

Model for written exercise: 

I was so tired that I could not get here sooner. 



Time 


Place 


Manner 


Degree 


Cause 


Numeral 


Modal 


sooner 


here 




so 
191 






not 



192 PARTS OF SPEECH 

154. Adverbs Classified According to Use. — Adverbs, if 
classified according to use, are of the following kinds: 

(1) Interrogative adverbs; as, Where is he? 
Interrogative adverbs, like interrogative pronouns, may introduce 

either direct or indirect questions (123); as, 

When did you see him? (Direct question.) 
Tell us when you saw him. (Indirect question.) 

(2) Relative adverbs; as, Here is the place where (at 
which) we stopped. 

. Relative adverbs, like relative pronouns, introduce subordinate 
clauses, and refer to an antecedent expressed or omitted. If the 
antecedent is expressed, the clause is adjectival (53); if the anteced- 
ent is omitted, the clause is adverbial (53); thus, 

It happened on the day before you came. (Adjectival clause mod- 
ifying the noun day.) 

It happened before you came. (Adverbial clause modifying the 
verb happened.) 

The principal relative adverbs are when, whenever, while, as, since, 
before, after, till, until, where, whence, whither, why, how. 
Relative adverbs are also called conjunctive adverbs. 

Exercise 113 

Point out the interrogative and relative adverbs; tell 
whether each subordinate clause is an indirect question, 
an adjectival clause, or an adverbial clause: 

1. How did he do it? 8. I know why iron rusts. 

2. Tell us how he did it. 9. There is a reason why iron 

3. Where did he land? rusts. 

4. I have found out where he 10. It grew cold after I came. 

landed. 11. The day after I came was 

5. I know the very spot where cold. 

he landed. 12. Please wait until we are 

6. I have stood where he landed. ready. 

7. Why does iron rust? 



ADVERBS 193 

155. Adverbs Classified According to Form. — Adverbs, 
if classified according to form, are of the following kinds : 

(1) Simple adverbs, or adverbs not formed from other 
words; as, so, how, thus, here, not, etc. 

(2) Derivative adverbs, or adverbs formed from other 
words by adding a prefix or suffix; as, afoot, slowly, etc. 

The largest class of adverbs is made up of those ending in ly. 
They are derived mostly from adjectives, especially descriptive 
adjectives. 

Some words ending in ly are adjectives, not adverbs; as, manly, 
godly, lordly, lively, friendly, costly, comely, etc. Such adjectives do 
not have corresponding adverbs. We say "in a manly way," etc. 

A few adverbs have two forms, which differ somewhat in mean- 
ing: as, hard, hardly; late, lately; most, mostly; near, nearly; etc. 

Some words may be either adverbs or adjectives without a 
change in form;* as, far, fast, well, ill, much, little, etc., thus: 

I walked far. We ran fast. You sing well. (Adverbs.) 

It is far. It is a fast train. I am well. (Adjectives.) 

(3) Compound adverbs, or adverbs formed by uniting 
two (rarely more) words; as, indeed, forever, nowadays, etc. 

Some idiomatic adverbial phrases have the value of 

compound adverbs; as, 

at all at length by far in part of course 

at last at once for good in short of late 

at least by all means in general in vain of old, etc. 

Exercise 114 
(1) Name the adverbs corresponding to these adjec- 
tives : 



clear 


eager 


tolerable 


well 


like 


certain 


whole 


forcible 


good 


m 


feeble 


splendid 


loud 


fond 


bad 


some 


dainty 


frantic 



* After the old adverbial suffix e dropped out of use, many adverbs 
and adjectives became for a time identical in form. A few such words 
still remain, though adverbs of manner now generally end in ly. 



194 PARTS OF SPEECH 

(2) Name an adverbial equivalent for these adjec- 
tives: costly, friendly, womanly, deadly, gentlemanly, 
seemly. 

(3) Choose between the two adverbs and find a rea- 
son to justify your choice: 

1. He works hard (hardly). 4. He stood near (nearly). 

2. I hard (hardly) ever go. 5. She is most (mostly) candid. 

3. He seems to be near (nearly) 6. His poems consist most 

exhausted. (mostly) of songs. 

156. Comparison of Adverbs. — Adverbs, like adjectives, 
often admit of comparison. They are compared as 
follows : 

(1) A few adverbs are compared by adding er and est; 
as, soon, sooner, soonest. These are adverbs of one syl- 
lable, rarely of two syllables. 

(2) Most adverbs, especially those ending in ly, are 
compared by using more and most; as, swiftly, more 
swiftly, most swiftly. 

Sometimes either form of comparison may be used; 
as, often, oftener or more often, oftenest or most often. 

(3) A few adverbs are compared irregularly: as, ill 
(or badly), worse, worst; far, farther (further), farthest 
(furthest); late, later, latest or last; little, less, least; much, 
more, most; near, nearer, nearest or next; well, better, best. 

As we have seen (148), the comparative degree is used 
in comparing two things, the superlative in comparing 
more than two. This principle applies to adverbs as 
well as to adjectives. Note the following examples: 

Which can run the faster, you or John? 

Which can run the fastest, you, John, or James? 



ADVERBS 195 

Exercise 115 

(1) Compare the following adverbs: 

well far late near much little 

rapidly carefully ill plainly badly diligently 

early deeply happily clearly fondly slowly 

(2) Choose between the two forms and give a reason 
for your choice: 

1. We fared worse (iller) than you. 

2. Please speak kindlier (more kindly) to him. 

3. Which can write the better (best), Mary or John? 

4. Which can sing the best (better), Jane, Martha, or Louise? 

5. Charles can run faster than any (any other) boy in school. 

6. Charles can run the fastest of any boy (all the boys) in school. 

157. Grammatical Uses of Adverbs. — As we have seen, 
an adverb regularly modifies a verb, an adjective, or 
another adverb. 

Sometimes an adverb is used with a group of words, 
and modifies either the connecting word or the group as 
a whole; thus, 

He stood just above me. (Just modifies either the preposition 
above or the phrase above me.) 

I came just after he came. (Just modifies either the relative 
adverb after or the clause after he came.) 

Sometimes an adverb has the force of a predicate 
adjective; as, 

I am here but he is away. (I am present but he is absent.) 

Sometimes an adverb is used independently, with the 
force of an interjection; as, 

Why, I am surprised! 

Well, who would have thought it! 



196 PARTS OF SPEECH 

The adverb there, as we have seen (11), may be used 
as an expletive. As such, it occupies the place of the 
subject, while the real subject follows the verb; thus, 

There were many left. (Many were left.) 

The expletive there adds nothing to the meaning of the sentence, 
but merely serves to emphasize the subject. 

158. Position of Adverbs. — In order that the meaning 
may be clear, an adverb, like any other modifier, should 
be placed as near as possible to the word it modifies. 
Note these examples of incorrect and correct position: 

Incorrect Position Correct Position 

He only died yesterday. He died only yesterday. 

He was even praised by his He was praised even by his 

enemies. enemies. 

He was not ruined by neglect He was ruined not by neglect 

but by indulgence. but by indulgence. 

I never remember to have seen I do not remember ever to have 

him. seen him. 

He tried to reform hard. He tried hard to reform. 

The word only, which may be either an adjective or an adverb, 
is often misplaced. Its proper position is immediately before what 
it is intended to modify, though sometimes it may stand at the end 
of the sentence or clause; as, He lives for others only (or only for 
others.) 

Exercise 116 

Choose between the two positions of the adverb and 
give a reason for your choice: 

1. We only lost (lost only) ten dollars. 

2. I tried to find you in vain (in vain to find you). 

3. They came to see him often (often came to see him). 

4. We should not even hate (not hate even) our enemies. 

5. I tell you that I will not go positively (positively that I will 
not go). 



ADVERBS 



197 



159. Needless Use of Adverbs. — Sometimes an adverb 
is used needlessly. Note these examples: 



Incorrect 
Repeat it over again. 
We returned back home. 
He seldom ever smiles. 

I generally always try. 
This is universally believed by 
all men. 



Correct 
Repeat it again. 
We returned home. 
He seldom (or seldom if ever) 

smiles. 
I generally try (or always try). 
This is believed by all men (or 

universally believed). 



160. Double Negative. — Note this example: 
It is not improbable that I shall see him. 

Here are two negative words — not and improbable. 
The use of two negatives in the same assertion forms 
what is called the double negative. 

In Modern English, the double negative, if correctly 

used, amounts to a mild or softened affirmative. Other 

examples of the correct use of the double negative are: 

It is our duty not to be unhappy. 
He was never unmindful of his trust. 
They were not unwilling to surrender. 
It is not impossible to do this work. 

If, however, the purpose of the speaker is to make a 
denial, the double negative must not be used. Note the 
following forms of expression: 

Incorrect Correct 

He didn't do nothing. He didn't do anything (or did 

nothing) . 
We hadn't never failed. We had never (or hadn't ever) 

failed. 
I haven't but one left. I have but one left. 

I couldn't hardly see. I could hardly see. 

I will not go nor send. I will not go or send (or neither 

go nor send). 



198 PARTS OF SPEECH 

161. Adjective or Adverb, Which? — Sometimes we are 
puzzled whether to use an adjective or an adverb after 
certain verbs. For example, should we say: 

"I feel bad" or "I feel badly"? 

Bad denotes quality or condition; badly denotes man- 
ner. As the speaker evidently refers to his physical or 
mental condition, not to the manner of his doing some- 
thing, he should say "I feel bad." Badly is appropri- 
ately used in such expressions as "He spells badly," "I 
write badly " etc. 

The same distinction holds after other verbs. If we 
are describing a quality or a condition of something, we 
should use an adjective; if the manner of an action, 
we should use an adverb. 

A few verbs admit either an adjective or an adverb with little 
or no difference in meaning; as, 

They arrived safe (or safely). 
The sun shines bright (brightly). 

Some verbs admit either an adjective or an adverb according to 
their meaning; as, 

He looks (seems to be) happy. 
He looks (gazes) intently on the scene. 
Verbs of being, as be, become, seem, appear, and the like, are 
naturally followed by an adjective denoting a quality or a condition 
of something (149,3). Verbs of action are naturally followed by an 
adverb denoting the manner of the action. 

162. Words or Groups of Words Used as Adverbs. — 
Words not properly classed as adverbs, also groups of 
words, may be used with the force of adverbs. Note 
the following instances: 

(1) Nouns; as, They returned home. 

(2) Adjectives; as, Sleep soft, beloved. 



ADVERBS 



199 



The adverbial use of adjectives, while common during the seven- 
teenth and eighteenth centuries, is now confined chiefly to poetry 
and to such colloquialisms as "some better," "mighty glad," "real 
soon," "that far," etc. Such expressions as the foregoing are 
avoided in literary language. 

(3) Phrases; as, Handle this with care. 

(4) Clauses; as, Come as soon as you can. 

Exercise 117 



Choose between the two 
your choice: 

1. You look happy (happily). 

2. She talks rapid (rapidly). 

3. I grew nervous (nervously). 

4. He fought brave (bravely). 

5. I am awful (very) glad to 

see you here. 

6. He wouldn't admit nothing 

(anything). 

7. You look some (somewhat) 

better today. 

8. I am feeling tolerable (toler- 

ably) well now. 



forms and give a reason for 

9. You talk foolish (foolishly). 

10. You seem foolish (foolishly). 

11. I have (haven't) but one now. 

12. We seldom ever (if ever) go. 

13. He has (hasn't) sold scarcely 

any of it. 

14. We are powerful (very) anx- 

ious to meet him. 

15. He does not play so good 

(well) as he once did. 

16. I generally (generally al- 

ways) get up early. 



(1) Add ly to such 
need it, and in each 

1. They are part ready. 

2. We were ill treated. 

3. He seldom comes here. 

4. We feel very awkward. 

5. They are poor paid. 

6. She looks beautiful. 

7. She sings beautiful. 

8. Our men landed safe. 



Exercise 118 
(Review) 

of the following italicized words as 
case tell why it is or is not added: 

9. He seems diligent. 

10. Boys, work diligent. 

11. You are talking too loud. 

12. They are near all gone. 

13. This water tastes bitter. 

14. You are over proud, men. 

15. Watch him very close. 

16. He has tried very hard. 



200 PARTS OF SPEECH 

(2) Choose between the two forms and give a reason 
for your choice: 

1. Where is it at (is it)? 

2. Speak calmer (more calmly). 

3. I must not go farther (further). 

4. Let us return (return back) home. 

5. It only lasted (lasted only) a month. 

6. He spoke (did not speak) hardly a word. 

7. We could (could not) but regret our loss. 

8 It happened previous (previously) to my return. 
9. He tried to do his duty hard (hard to do his duty). 

10. Please repeat the answer over (repeat the answer) again. 

11. He was not even trusted (not trusted even) by his own son. 

12. This great man is esteemed (universally esteemed) by every 
true American. 

163. Parsing of Adverbs. — To parse an adverb we tell 
the following: 

(1) Class. 

(2) Degree and comparison if it is compared. 

(3) Grammatical use. 

Models for parsing adverbs: 

You have come too soon. 

1. Too is an adverb of degree, used to modify the adverb soon. 

2. Soon is an adverb of time, in the positive degree; compared, 
soon, sooner, soonest; used to modify the verb-phrase have come. 

Exercise 119 

Parse the adverbs in the following sentences: 

1. It is never too late to mend. 

2. He liveth long who liveth well. 

3. Why did it turn out so unfortunately? 

4. Right sometimes sleeps, but never dies. 

5. None are so deaf as those who will not hear. 



ADVERBS 201 

6. Over and over again 

The brook through the meadow flows. 

7. The path that has once been trod 

Is never so rough to the feet. 

8. Speak gently to the erring, — ye know not all the power 
With which the dark temptation came, in some unguarded 

hour; 
Ye may not know how earnestly they struggled, or how well, 
Until the hour of weakness came, and sadly thus they fell. 

SUMMARY OF ADVERBS 

I. Kinds (153-155). 

1. According to Meaning (153) 

a. Adverbs of Time 

b. Adverbs of Place 

c. Adverbs of Manner 

d. Adverbs of Degree 

e. Adverbs of Cause 
/. Numeral Adverbs 
g. Modal Adverbs 

2. According to Use (154) 

a. Interrogative Adverbs 

b. Relative Adverbs 

3. According to Form (155) 

a. Simple Adverbs 

b. Derivative Adverbs 

c. Compound Adverbs • 

II. Comparison (156). 

1. Degrees — Positive, Comparative, Superlative 

2. Methods of Comparison 

a. By Inflection 

b. By Using More and Most 

c. Irregular 

III. Grammatical Uses (157). 



Chapter V. 

VERBS 

We have learned (16) that a verb is a word which 
asserts action, being, or condition. We have also 
learned (16) that a verb may assume a compound, or 
phrasal, form known as a verb-phrase. 

As to class, verbs are transitive or intransitive, auxili- 
ary or notional. Intransitive verbs are complete or link- 
ing. 

164. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. — Note the fol- 
lowing examples: 

The teacher praised James. 
Henry came back yesterday. 

The verb praised takes the direct object James to 
complete its meaning. Since the action is thought of 
as passing over from the doer to the receiver, it is called 
a transitive verb, the term transitive meaning "passing 
over." 

The verb came is different ; its meaning is complete 
without the addition of a direct object. A verb that 
does not take a direct object to complete its meaning 
is called an intransitive verb. 

A transitive verb is a verb that takes a direct object 
to complete its meaning. 

An intransitive verb is a verb that does not take a 
direct object to complete its meaning. 

165. Verbs either Transitive or Intransitive. — The dis- 
tinction between transitive- and intransitive verbs is 
based upon their use in the sentence. Verbs commonly 

202 



VERBS 203 

transitive may be used without an object: as, I believe; 
Now he sees; We understand; She writes for the papers. 
Verbs so used are intransitive. 

Again, verbs commonly intransitive may become tran- 
sitive in one of two ways: 

(1) They may take as the direct object a substantive 
of kindred meaning to the verb, known as a cognate 
("kindred") object; as, He spoke a declamation. 

(2) They may be used in a causative or factitive sense : 
as, John flew his kite (caused his kite to fly); Mary 
sang herself hoarse (made herself hoarse by singing). 

Sometimes the causative form is distinct from the 
intransitive. Note carefully the following examples: 

Intransitive Transitive 

Fall: The leaves fall. Fell: Come, fell the trees. 

Lie: Here they lie. Lay: Lay it down at once. 

Rise: We rise early. Raise: Raise the window. 

Sit: Here they sit. Set: Set the box here. 

The verbs ask and teach, in addition to the direct object, take 
another object called the secondary object; as, 

He asked me a question. 

Me is the direct object; question is the secondary object. 

Exercise 120 

(1) Point out the verbs and tell whether they are 
transitive or intransitive: 

1. He returned early. 8. He grows fine apples. 

2. He returned the book. 9. Down came the storm. 

3. She teaches English. 10. They seemed restless. 

4. She teaches well. 11. Worth makes the man. 

5. They called for you. 12. Never chase a lie. 

6. Who calls this a fire? 13. "The Frost looked forth." 

7. The tree grew fast. 14. Good actions ennoble us. 



204 PARTS OF SPEECH 

(2) Write ten sentences, using each of the following 
verbs first transitively, then intransitively: 

hear watch play recite remember 

(3) Supply the proper verb in each sentence and give 
a reason for your choice: 

1. John, down. (Set, sit.) 

2. Boys, the chairs out. (Set, sit.) 

3. There his books . (Lay, lie.) 

4. the books on the table. (Lay, lie.) 

5. your hands, children. (Raise, rise.) 

6. All hands now . (Raise, rise.) 

7. The woodman an oak. (Falls, fells.) 

8. See, the oak . (Falls, fells.) 

9. The hen on a dozen eggs. (Sets, sits.) 

10. Herein the danger. (Lays, lies ) 

11. The moon above the wood. (Raises, rises.) 

12. here until I come back. (Set, sit.) 

13. He an objection to your plan. (Raises, rises.) 

14. Canada to our north. (Lays, lies.) 

15. The ship at anchor off the coast. (Lays, lies.) 

166. Complete and Linking Verbs. — Intransitive verbs 
are of two kinds: 

(1) Complete verbs, or verbs that within themselves 

form a complete predication (29); as, 

Now she sings. 

He spoke for two hours. 

(2) Linking verbs, or verbs that join the subject with 

a subjective complement (31); as, 

He is now famous. 

He grew restless after this. 

Some verbs may be either complete or linking; as, 

He soon appeared. (Complete.) 
He appeared uneasy. (Linking.) 



VERBS 205 

Exercise 121 

Tell which of the following intransitive verbs are 
complete and which are linking: 

1. He grew very tall. 7. God is. 

2. He grew very fast. 8. God is love. 

3. She seems interested. 9. He became wealthy. 

4. They marched slowly. 10. They fought bravely. 

5. He remained faithful. 11. He works diligently. 

6. They sent for you. 12. We got very hungry. 

167. Auxiliary and Notional Verbs. — Note these exam- 
ples: 

I shall go soon. 
He came yesterday. 

The verb shall is used merely as a helping verb. It 
combines with the infinitive go to form the verb-phrase 
shall go, thereby helping the verb go to express a varia- 
tion of its meaning. A verb that helps another verb to 
express some variation of its meaning is called an aux- 
iliary ("helping") verb. 

On the other hand, the verb came expresses a dis- 
tinct meaning of its own. A verb that expresses a 
distinct meaning of its own is called a notional ("express- 
ing an idea or notion") verb. 

An auxiliary verb is a verb that helps another verb to 
express some variation of its meaning. 

A notional verb is a verb that expresses a distinct 
meaning of its own. 

The verb helped by an auxiliary is sometimes called the principal 
verb. 

There are nine auxiliary verbs, namely: 

shall may must do have 

will can ought be 



206 PARTS OF SPEECH 

Some of the foregoing verbs may be either auxiliary or notional; 

as, 

I am going. I do go. I have gone. (Auxiliary.) 
God is. You do much. We have friends. (Notional.) 

Three verbs — dare, need, and let — may have an auxiliary force : 
as, I dare not tell; You need not come; Let him speak. 

Exercise 122 

Tell which verbs are auxiliary and which are notional: 

1. She writes. 5. Does he see? 9. I have time. 

2. He has written. 6. We remain here. 10. You ought to go. 

3. I came home. 7. I must go now. 11. I cannot say. 

4. I have come. 8. He is going. 12. He does much good. 

168. Inflection of Verbs. — The verb is the most highly 
inflected part of speech. By its form it may denote : 

(1) The person and number- of the subject; as, (I) am, 
(thou) art, (he) is, (we) are. 

(2) The tense, or time of the action, being, or condi- 
tion: as, I am, I was; I go, I went. 

(3) The mode, or manner of the assertion; as, 

He comes. (Fact asserted.) 

I fear lest he come. (Possibility asserted.) 

Come at once. (Command asserted.) 

(4) Action, being, or condition of a non-modal nature, 
or without restriction as to person and number; as, 

I wish to see him. (Infinitive.) 

I am tired of doing nothing. (Gerund.) 

Hearing a noise, he turned around. (Participle.) 

169. Compound, or Phrasal, Forms of Verbs. — In addi- 
tion to the changes that the verb may undergo through 



VERBS 207 

inflection, it may greatly add to the number of its vari- 
ations by compounding its infinitives and participles 
with auxiliary verbs, thereby forming verb-phrases (16). 
These variations are of the following kinds: 

(1) Compound, or phrasal, voice-forms; as, is called. 

(2) Compound, or phrasal, mood-forms; as, am called, 
be called. 

(3) Compound, or phrasal, tense-forms; as, shall call y 
have called, had called, shall have called. 

(4) Compound, or phrasal, forms expressing volition, 
possibility, obligation, necessity, or the like; as, will call, 
may call, can call, should call, must call. 

(5) Compound, or phrasal, non-modal forms — infini- 
tives, participles, and gerunds; as, to have called, having 
called, by having called. 

Voice 

170. Voice Defined. — Note these examples: 

Mary loves Susan. 
Susan is loved by Mary. 

In the first sentence, the subject Mary names the 
actor. In the second sentence, the subject Susan names 
the one who is acted upon. The form of a verb that 
shows whether the subject names the actor or the per- 
son or thing acted upon is called voice. 

Voice is the form of a verb that shows whether the 
subject names the actor or the person or thing acted 
upon. 

If the subject names the actor, the verb is said to be 
in the active voice. 

If the subject names the person or thing acted upon, 
the verb is said to be in the passive voice. 



208 PARTS OF SPEECH 

171. How the Passive Voice is Formed. — Note these 

examples: 

The girl is praised. 
The girl was praised. 
The girl will be praised. 

Is, was, and will be are forms of the auxiliary verb 
be. Praised is the past participle (219) of the verb 
praise. As here shown, the passive voice of a verb is 
formed by combining its past participle with the differ- 
ent forms of the auxiliary verb be. 

172. How to Change the Voice. — Note these examples: 

David loved Jonathan. (Active voice.) 
Jonathan was loved by David. (Passive voice.) 

In the first sentence, David is the subject, Jonathan is 
the direct object. In the second sentence, Jonathan is 
the subject, David is a substantive with the preposition 
by. Hence, in changing the voice of a verb, 

(1) The direct object of the active form becomes 'the 
subject of the passive form. 

(2) The subject of the active form becomes an 
adverbial phrase modifying the passive form. 

Often no mention is made of the actor when the passive voice is 
used: as, I was called home; Much time is wasted. 

Exercise 123 
(1) Tell the voice of the following verbs: 

1. Who was chosen? 

2. Act well your part. 

3. Worth makes the man. 

4. I know what was intended. 

5. Trifles make the life of man. 



VERBS 209 

6. By whom was the cotton-gin invented? 

7. He who plants kindness, gathers love. 

8. The Danes were conquered by King Alfred. 

9. Hiawatha learned of every bird its language. 

10. Everything that Midas touched was turned into gold. 

(2) Write five sentences in which the verbs are in the 
active voice, then change each verb to the passive voice. 

173. Retained Object. — Note these examples: 

Active Voice Passive Voice 

He gave me a reception. I was given a reception. 

He took good care of us. We were taken good care of. 

Here, in changing to the passive voice, the indirect 
object me in the first sentence and the pronoun us with 
the preposition of in the second sentence are made the 
subject of the passive form, while in each sentence the 
direct object is retained. When the direct object is 
retained after a passive verb, it is called the retained 
object. 

Sometimes the indirect object is retained; as, 

This pen was given me by my sister. 

The use of the indirect object or of a substantive with a preposi- 
tion, as the subject of a passive verb, is idiomatic rather than logical. 

174. Passive Voice of Intransitive Verbs. — Sometimes 
intransitive verbs, following the analogy of such idioms 
as "I was taken care of," are used in the passive voice. 
Note these examples: 

Active Voice Passive Voice 

They sent for me. I was sent for. 

They laughed at him. He was laughed at. 

They called for you. You were called for. 



210 PARTS OF SPEECH 

As here shown, when an intransitive verb is changed 
to the passive voice, a substantive with a preposition 
becomes the subject of the passive form, while the prep- 
osition is retained to complete the meaning of the verb- 
phrase. 

Exercise 124 

(1) Tell which of the two sentences in each group 
sounds the more natural, and point out the retained 
objects: 

1. (a) An ovation was given him. (b) He was given an ovation. 

2. (a) We were paid no attention to. (b) No attention was paid 
to us. 

3. (a) New outfits were promised us. : (6) We were promised new 
outfits. 

(2) Change the following sentences to the passive 
form, and tell whether the direct object, the indirect 
object, or a substantive with a preposition, becomes the 
subject of the passive verb: 

1. They spoke to me. 4. They heard from him. 

2. He gave us warning. 5. We attended to the matter. 

3. They furnished us transporta- 6. We should guard against 

tion. excess. 

175. Subjective Complement after Passive Verbs. — 
Note these examples: 

Active Voice Passive Voice 

They made him captain. He was made captain. 

As here shown, when a verb is changed from the 
active voice to the passive, the objective complement 
becomes the subjective complement. 



VERBS 211 

Exercise 125 

Change these sentences to the passive form, and tell 
how the italicized words are used both before and after 
the change: 

1. They named him Arthur. 

2. They call this lowland "Holland." 

3. The council made Cromwell "Lord Protector." 

4. They have selected you as their representative. 

5. Many regard Shakespeare as the world's greatest writer. 

Person and Number 

176. Inflection for Person and Number .-7- In some lan- 
guages, as the Latin, the verb has a distinct form for 
each person in both numbers. In our language, the 
verb is less highly inflected, yet it has certain person 
and number forms, which are employed with strict 
regard to agreement with the subject in person and 
number. 

The verb making most changes for person and num- 
ber is be. Note its inflection: 



Present Tense 


Past Tense 


Sing. 


Sing. 


1. I am 


1. I was 


2. you are (thou art) 


2. you were (thou wast) 


3. he is 


3. he was 


Plur. 


Plur. 


1. we are 


1. we were 


2. you are 


2. you were 


3. they are 


3. they were 



Other verbs have only two distinct person and num- 
ber forms in the present tense and one in the past 



212 PARTS OF SPEECH 

tense. For example, note the inflection of the verb 
call: 





Present Tense 




Past Tense 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Sing. 
I call 

you call (thou callest) 
he calls (calleth) 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Sing. 
I called 

you called (thou calledst) 
he called 




Plur. 




Plur. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


we call 
you call 
they call 


1. 
2. 
3. 


we called 
you called 
they called 



From the foregoing model it will be seen that: 

(1) The second person singular (old form) in both the 
present and the past tense ends in st (or est). This form 
is now employed chiefly in poetry and prayer. 

(2) The third person singular in the present tense 
ends in s (or es), old style th (or eth). 

The auxiliary verbs shall, will, may, can, must, and ought, some- 
times also dare and need, have no added ending in the third person 
singular; as, He will go, etc. 

(3) The remaining forms are not limited to a particu- 
lar person or number. 

Exercise 126 

(1) According to the foregoing model inflect the fol- 
lowing verbs for person and number: 

walk praise sit (past sat) teach (past taught) 

(2) Tell the person and number of the following 
verbs: 



is 


art 


wast 


goes 


returns 


tellest 


calls 


writest 


wrotest 


goeth 


laughedst 


telleth 



VERBS 213 

177. Agreement of Subject and Verb. — Note these 
examples : 

I am here. (Subject and verb first person singular.) 
Thou art fair. (Subject and verb second person singular.) 
Mary calls you. (Subject and verb third person singular.) 
You are mistaken. (Subject and verb second person plural.) 

As here shown, a verb agrees with its subject in person 
and number. 

Forms of the verb not limited to a particular person 
or number are said to be of the same person and num- 
ber as the subject. 

Some nouns are plural in form but singular in mean- 
ing, hence take singular verbs. Note the following kinds: 

(1) Titles of books, periodicals, or the like; as, "Tales 
of a Grandfather' ' was written by Scott. 

(2) Expressions of value or quantity: as, Five dollars 
is too much. Ten acres was planted in corn. 

If the separate units are thought of, the verb is plural; as, There 
are five new silver dollars in my hand. 

(3) Some special words— amends, athletics, ethics, math- 
ematics, measles, mumps, news, politics, etc.: as, Amends 
was made; The news is true. 

Some of the foregoing words may also take plural verbs (87). 

Collective nouns take: 

(1) A singular verb if the collection is thought of as 
a whole; as, The entire army was destroyed. 

(2) A plural verb if the individuals making up the 
collection are thought of; as, The people are divided. 

The pronoun you, whether it refers to one or to more than one, 
takes a plural verb, "You was" is incorrect. 



214 



PARTS OF SPEECH 



178. Contractions. — There are a few contractions em- 
ployed largely in colloquial language. Note carefully 
the number of each: 



Singular 

isn't (is not) 
wasn't (was not) 
hasn't (has not) 
doesn't (does not) 



Plural 

aren't (are not) 
weren't (were not) 
haven't (have not) 
don't (do not) 



There is a careless tendency to use don't with a singular subject; 
as, He don't (doesn't) mind. 

"Ain't" is a corruption for am not, isn't, or aren't, and its use 
should be avoided. 



Exercise 127 

(1) Add the proper ending to each verb not agreeing 
with its subject in person and number: 



1. 


We talk. 


7. 


Mary sing. 


13. 


She write. 


2. 


He talk. 


8. 


Mary sang. 


14. 


Thou write. 


3. 


Thou talk. 


9. 


Thou sang. 


15. 


We wrote. 


4. 


They sing. 


10. 


He sang. 


16. 


Thou wrote. 


5. 


It sing. 


11. 


I write. 


17. 


Mother wrote. 


6. 


Birds sing. 


12. 


John write. 


18. 


Alice play. 



(2) Tell whether to use is or 
following expressions as subject: 



are after each of the 



tongs 


twenty sail 


smallpox 


oxen 


genera 


they 


we 


cheese 


men-of-war 


genii 


victuals 


you 


coffee 


women 


radius 


wheat 


molasses 


this fish 


crises 


radii 


five sheep 


news 


these fish 


ten cents 


this hose 


a heathen 


politics 


suds 


Baalim 


these hose 


ten heathen 


measles 


six trout 


beaux 


formulae 


two cannon 


mumps 


a mackerel 


phenomena 


a bellows 



VERBS 215 

(3) Choose the proper verb for each subject and give 
a reason for your choice: 

1. This don't (doesn't) suit me. 

2. They wasn't (weren't) prepared. 

3. The jury finds (find) him guilty. 

4. Sarah, you was (were) not to blame. 

5. The girls hasn't (haven't) returned. 

6. Ten years is (are) too long to wait. 

7. These people is (are) greatly divided. 

8. The Japanese people is (are) Mongolian. 

9. The entire six gallons was (were) lost. 

10. The children hasn't (haven't) been told. 

11. The Roman nation was (were) a great people. 

12. "The Canterbury Tales" was (were) written by Chaucer. 

179. Compound Subjects. 1 — Note these examples: 

Mary and Jane are here. 
You and Henry are late. 
He and I are coming soon. 

The foregoing compound subjects are connected by 
and and take plural verbs. As a rule, a compound sub- 
ject connected by and takes a plural verb. 

The following kinds of compound subjects take sing- 
ular verbs: 

(1) Compound subjects denoting one person, thing, or idea; as, 

A friend and schoolmate of mine is here. (One person.) 

A block and tackle was employed. (One thing.) 

The sum and substance of the matter is this. (One idea.) 

(2) Compound subjects modified by each, every, many a, or no; 
as, 

Every man, woman, and child was sent back. 

(3) Compound subjects made up of singular subjects connected 
by or, nor, either . . . or, or neither . . . nor, as; 

Neither age nor rank nor sex was respected. 



216 PARTS OF SPEECH 

If the separate subjects are plural, the verb is plural; as, Neither 
women nor children are admitted. 

If the separate subjects differ in person or number, in colloquial 
language the verb may agree with the nearest subject: as, Either 
you or I am wrong; Either he or you are to go; Neither he nor his 
sisters w ere there. 

In literary language a clash in the agreement of subject and verb 
should be avoided. The verb should be expressed with each sub- 
ject, or a verb of common form should be used, or the sentence 
should be recast: as, Either you are wrong or I am wrong; Either he 
or you must go; Both he and his sisters were absent. 

Substantives connected by with, along with, together with, in addi- 
tion to, or as well as, do not form a compound subject; as, The 
explorer, with all his men, was (not were) lost. 

Care must be taken not to allow words that come between the 
subject and the verb to disturb the agreement; thus, 

Every one of the ships was (not were) saved. 
The extent of his riches is (not are) not known. 
Seven changes of costume were (not was) furnished. 

180. Order of Person in a Compound Subject. — Note 

these examples: 

You and I are invited. 
He and I are invited. 
You and he are invited. 

You and He precede /; You precedes he. When the 
members of a compound subject differ in person, the 
speaker, through courtesy, gives preference in position 
to the second and third persons over the first, to the 
second person over the third. 

In colloquial language, there is sometimes a careless disregard of 
the proper order and the proper case-forms in compound subjects: 
as, Me and John {John and I) went; Me and him (he and 7) will go; 
You and him (you and he) must stay. Such vulgarisms are not to 
be used. 



VERBS 217 

181. Person of Verbs Used with Nouns. — Note these 
examples : 

Mother loves her child. (I love my child.) 

How is your honor today? (How are you today?) 

Here Mother denotes the speaker, your honor denotes 
the person spoken to, yet each takes the verb in the 
third person. A noun always takes the verb in the third 
person, even though it denotes the speaker or the person 
spoken to. 

Exercise 128 

(1) Choose the proper form of the verb and give a 
reason for your choice: 

1. He and John is (are) here. 

2. Father and I am (are) going. 

3. You and I was (were) invited. 

4. Each of the boys is (are) ready. 

5. Both time and money was (were) lost. 

6. Neither time nor money was (were) lost. 

7. Not one of these apples is (are) sound. 

8. This kind of books is (are) interesting. 

9. One or the other of us is (are) mistaken. 

10. Neither pupils nor teacher has to (must) go. 

11. Neither pupils nor teachers has (have) to go. 

12. His end and aim in life was (were) to do good. 

13. The captain, with all his crew, was (were) saved. 

14. Ham and eggs is (are) his favorite dish for breakfast. 

15. Every boy and girl in school like (likes) the teacher. 

16. Both moral and intellectual training is (are) essential. 

17. An old friend and schoolmate of mine have (has) arrived. 

18. Patience as well as industry is (are) necessary to success. 

19. Shakespeare's metaphor, "Night's candles are burnt out," is 
(are) a beautiful figure. 

20. A laggard in love and a dastard in war was (were) to wed 
the fair Ellen of brave Lochinvar. 



218 PARTS OF SPEECH 

(2) Choose the proper form and give a reason for 
your choice: 

1. You and I (I and you) are lucky. 

2. He and I (him and me) are friends. 

3. I and Harry (Harry and I, me and Harry) are here. 

(3) Recast the following sentences so as to connect 
the members of the compound subject by neither . . . 
nor: 

1. Both you and I are not yet twenty. 

2. Both teachers and pupils were unharmed. 

Tense 

182. Tense Defined. — Note these examples: 

She sings. She sang. She will sing. 

Sings refers to the present time, sang to the past 
time, will sing to the future time. The form of a verb 
that denotes the time of the action, being, or condition 
is called tense, a term meaning "time." 

Tense is the form of a verb that denotes the time of 

the action, being, or condition. 

Tense-forms also indicate whether the action, being, or condition 
is incomplete or complete: as, He walks (incomplete action); He has 
walked (complete action). 

183. The Tenses. — Note these examples : 

(1) He calls. He called. He will call. 

(2) He has called. He had called. He will have called. 

Here are illustrated six tenses, which fall into two 
groups, as indicated. 

The tenses of the first group denote time primarily. 
They are the present, as calls; the past, as called; the 
future, as will call. 

The present tense denotes present time. 



VERBS 219 

The past tense denotes past time. 

The future tense denotes future time. 

The tenses of the second group, in addition to denot- 
ing time — present, past, and future, — show that the 
action, being, or condition is complete, and, for that 
reason, are called perfect (or complete) tenses. They are 
the present perfect, as has called; the past perfect, as had 
called; the future perfect, as will have called. 

The present perfect tense denotes action, being, or 
condition complete at the present time. 

The past perfect tense denotes action, being, or condi- 
tion completed at some point in past time. 

The future perfect tense denotes action, being, or con- 
dition to be completed at some point in future time. 

In addition to the six tenses just mentioned, there are two others, 
the past future tense and the past future perfect tense, which denote 
future time from a past time. 

The present tense is the simple, or root, form of the verb; the 
past tense is formed by inflection; the other tenses are compound, 
or phrasal. 

184. Uses of the Present Tense. — The present tense- 
form of a verb may denote: 

(1) What is actually going on at the present; as, 
Here Edward comes. 

(2) What is accustomed to take place in the present: 
as, We rise early; He comes here every day. 

(3) What is generally or universally true: as, Heat 
expands, cold contracts; God reigns. 

(4) Sometimes future action, being, or condition; as, 
We start tomorrow. 

In subordinate clauses the present tense-form often denotes future 
time; as, When he comes (shall come), meet him. 






220 PARTS OF SPEECH 

(5) Sometimes past action, being, or condition; as, 
Caesar falls (fell) at the foot of Pompey's statue. 

The present tense, when it denotes past time, is called the his- 
torical present. This tense is a figure of speech employed in the 
language of feeling or emotion, but not suited to ordinary language. 

The present tense, however, is properly used in relating the hap- 
penings or plot of a story; as, Bassanio borrows from Shylock and 
gives Antonio as surety. 

Exercise 129 

(1) Tell how the present tense is used in each of the 
following sentences: 

1. There goes David. 

2. He has good health. 

3. We live in Washington. 

4. Smoke is lighter than air. 

5. Next summer we visit Scotland. 

6. Macbeth again visits the witches. 

7. We generally dine at six o'clock. 

8. Tomorrow we dine at twelve o'clock. 

9. The bobolink migrates as far south as Brazil. 

10. Even in the darkest hour Columbus never loses hope. 

(2) Choose between the two tenses and give a reason 
for your choice: 

1. "I have come," says (said) he. 

2. Socrates held that man was (is) immortal. 

3. Copernicus taught that the earth revolves (revolved) about the 
sun. 

4. Benjamin Franklin proved that lightning and electricity were 
(are) the same. 

5. Ernest was (is) the principal character in the story of "The 
Great Stone Face." 

(3) Compose three sentences to show how the present 
tense may be used in relating the happenings of a story 
you have heard or read. 



VERBS 221 

185. Formation of the Past Tense. — There are two 
principal ways of forming the past tense: 

(1) By adding ed, d, or t to the present: as, fix, fixed; 
hear, heard; mean, mean£. 

A verb that forms the past tense by adding ed, d, or 
t to the present is called a regular verb. 

(2) By changing the stem-vowel of the verb: as, 
grow, grew; run, ran; ring, rang; take, took; sit, sat. 

A verb that forms the past tense by changing the 
stem- vowel is called an irregular verb. 

A regular verb is a verb that forms the past tense by 
adding ed, d, or t to the present. 

An irregular verb is a verb that forms the past tense 
by changing the stem-vowel. 

Regular verbs are also called new or weak verbs. Irregular verbs 
are also called old or strong verbs. 

The verbs adding ed to form the past tense are a 
growing class. They include: 

(1) All newly coined verbs; as, hypnotize, mesmerize, telegraph, etc. 

(2) All verbs adopted from other parts of speech; as, brown, 
clerk, champion, ship, water, wire, etc. 

Some regular verbs have two forms in the past tense; as, drest or 
dressed, knelt or kneeled, spelt or spelled. 

Some irregular verbs have adopted regular forms; as, hung or 
hanged, shone or shined, woke or waked. 

Caution. — The suffix ed is so often used in forming the past tense 
that there is a tendency, especially among small children and illiter- 
ate persons, to employ this ending where it is not allowed; as, 
blowed for blew, catched for caught, bursted or busted for burst, creeped 
for crept, growed for grew, knowed for knew, tended for lent, seed for 
saw, stayed for slew, stoled for stole, throwed for threw, tored for tore. 
On the other hand, drug is sometimes wrongly used for dragged. 



222 



PARTS OF SPEECH 



Exercise 130 

(1) Supply the past tense of the following verbs after 
the subject he (it if he is not appropriate). For aid 
refer to the list of verbs in the appendix. 

Models: He sat. It burst. 



begin 


dig 


flee 


hold 


ring 


shred 


sweat 


blow 


do 


fly 


hurt 


rise 


shrink 


swim 


bring 


draw 


give 


know 


run 


sing 


take 


catch 


dream 


go 


lay 


say 


sink 


throw 


chide 


drink 


grow 


lie 


see 


slay 


wake 


come 


eat 


hang 


light 


shine 


spring 


wring 


creep 


fight 


hear 


read 


shoe 


steal 


write 



(2) Choose the proper form and give a reason for 
your choice: 

1. I sat (set) near him. 

2. I saw (seen) you there. 

3. He done (did) me a favor. 

4. You began (begun) too late. 

5. The bell rung (rang) early. 

6. He often eat (ate) with me. 

7. Who dug (digged) the ditch? 

8. He lay (laid) down to rest. 

9. He lay (laid) the book down. 

10. They come (came) very early. 

11. A little bird flew (fled) by. 

12. We flew (fled) from the city. 

13. They rose (raised) up slowly. 

14. My horse run (ran) very fast. 

15. He give (gave) us no warning. 

16. He hung (hanged) his coat up. 

17. They hung (hanged) the murderer. 

18. They worked (wrought) very hard. 

19. They worked (wrought) a great change. 

20. The men took (taken) their hats and walked away. 



VERBS 223 

(3) Supply in each sentence the correct form of the 
past tense of the accompanying verb: 

1. Yes, we it. (Know.) 

2. They it home. (Bring.) 

3. She very fast. (Grow.) 

4. The wind hard. (Blow.) 

5. The bubble very soon . (Burst.) 

6. We our pay at the end of the week. (Draw.) 

7. Our men the right wing of the enemy. (Attack.) 

8. They the logs down to the river with oxen. (Drag.) 

186. Uses of the Past Tense. — The past tense-form of 
a verb may denote: 

(1) What took place at some time in the past; as, 
We came back last night. 

(2) What was accustomed to take place in the past; 
as, He always rose very early. 

(3) Action, being, or condition continued in the past; 
as, Caesar waged war in Gaul for many years. 

(4) Sometimes, in subordinate clauses, present action, 
being, or condition: as, I wish I were at home today; 
If I had a horse now, I would ride him. 

(5) Sometimes, in subordinate clauses, future action, 
being, or condition; as, If you met (should meet) him, 
what would you say? 

Exercise 131 

Point out the verbs in the past tense and tell what 
each one denotes: 

1. They returned Monday. 

2. He always sat in this chair. 

3. A wind came up out of the sea. 

4. I wish Martha were at home today. 

5. I stood on the bridge at midnight. 



224 PARTS OF SPEECH 

6. Uncle John often told us Indian stories. 

7. Longfellow taught at Harvard for many years. 

8. If he came here yesterday, I did not see him. 

9. If you saw a cyclone coming, what would you do? 
10. Milton wrote "Paradise Lost" after he became blind. 

187. Formation of the Future Tense. — The future tense 
is formed by combining the auxiliary verbs shall and 
will with the infinitive (without to) ; thus, 

I shall call we shall call 

you will call (thou wilt call) you will call 

he will call they will call 

As we see here, we use shall in the first person, will 
in the second and third persons, to express simple futur- 
ity; that is, to predict that something will happen. 

Exercise 132 

In each sentence supply the proper auxiliary to 
express simple futurity, then point out the future tense 
verb-phrase : 

1. All be well. 

2. I get back soon. 

3. I fear it rain today. 

4. We be sorry to see you go. 

5. I hope that you be contented. 

6. I always feel glad that I went. 

7. School close on the first of June. 

8. You hardly believe what I tell you. 

9. Robert take my place until I come back. 

10. You never know how much we miss you when 

you are gone. 

11. By the end of March we at least be in sight of a pre- 
liminary peace, which be the greatest stride toward universal 

peace. 



VERBS 225 

188. Other Future Forms. — We have seen that the 
present tense-form of a verb, also the past-tense form 
in subordinate clauses, may denote future time. 

There are other forms, which, in addition to denoting 
future time, express certain ideas not expressed by the 
future tense, namely: 

(1) Volition (that is, will or determination) on the 
speaker's part; as, 

I will call we will call 

you shall call (thou shalt call) you shall call 

he shall call they shall call 

As we see here, to express volition on the speaker's 
part, we reverse the order of the auxiliaries, using will 
in the first person, shall in the second and third.* 

(2) Obligation or previous arrangement; as, I am to 
call, you are to call, he is to call, etc. 

(3) Intention or purpose; as, I am going to call, you 
are going to call, he is going to call, etc. 

(4) Early accomplishment; as, I am about to call, I am 
on the point of calling, etc. 

Exercise 133 

(1) Point out the forms of the verb denoting mere 
futurity, also the forms denoting an idea not expressed 
by the simple future tense, and tell what the idea is: 

1. I shall stay here a week. 

2. You shall stay here a week. 

3. He will not come here again. 

4. He shall not come here again. 

5. You will help them all you can. 

* Shall and will are treated here primarily as tense auxiliaries. 
Their use as modal auxiliaries will be discussed later (206). 



226 PARTS OF SPEECH 

6. Next week we begin to study algebra. 

7. I am to let him know as soon as I decide. 

8. The enemy is on the point of surrendering. 

9. I hope that the boys will make a good record. 
10. I am going to work at home until school opens. 

(2) Supply the word or words needed to express the 
idea suggested in connection with each sentence: 

1. They go. (Simple Futurity.) 

2. They go. (Volition on Speaker's Part.) 

3. You be sent. (Simple Futurity.) 

4. You be sent. (Volition on Speaker's Part.) 

5. I pay you tomorrow. (Volition.) 

6. They win. (Early Accomplishment.) 

7. Who — '■ take his place? (Previous Arrangement.) 

8. I enter the race. (Intention or Pur- 
pose.) 

9. He yielding. (Early 

Accomplishment.) 

189. Past Future Tense. — By using should, the past 
tense of shall, and would, the past tense of will, we may 
form a future tense from some past time; as, 

Edward promised that he would help us. 

Here the action of helping is represented as being 
future not from the present, but from the time when 
Edward made his promise, which was in the past. 
His words at that time were "I will help you." As 
this form of a verb denotes future time from a past 
time, it is called the past future tense. 

The order of the auxiliaries in the past future tense is the same 
as in the future tense; thus, 

I should call we should call 

you would call (thou wouldst call) you would call 
he would call they would call 



VERBS 227 

By reversing the order of the auxiliaries, we form a past future 
tense expressing volition on the speaker's part; as, I would call, you 
should call, etc.* 

The past future tense is simply the future tense transferred to 
the past, shall becoming should and will becoming would. We use 
this tense in expressing indirectly the words or thoughts of some one 
from a past standpoint; thus, 

He promised that he would try. (His promise was "I will try.") 

He said that he should be sorry to go. (His words were "I shall 
be sorry to go.") 

Exercise 134 

(1) In each sentence change the present tense in the 
principal clause to the past tense and change the future 
tense in the subordinate clause to the past future tense: 

Model: 

(1) I believe that I shall be satisfied. 

(2) I believed that I should be satisfied. 

1. I hope that you will go. 

2. He asks that you shall assist. 

3. She asks if you will go along. 

4. I am afraid that we shall fail. 

5. He declares that no one shall stop him. 

6. They resolve that they will not surrender. 

7. They resolve that you shall not interfere. 

8. He says that he shall be sorry if you shall fail. 

(2) In each sentence change the direct statement or 

question to the indirect form, then point out the past 

future tense: 

Models: 

Direct Form Indirect Form 

He replied, "I will go." He replied that he would go. 

We asked him, "Will you sing?" We asked him if he would sing. 

I inquired, "What shall I do?" I inquired what I should do. 

* Should and would are treated here primarily as tense auxiliaries. 
Their use as modal auxiliaries will be discussed later (207). 



228 PARTS OF SPEECH 

1. They replied, "We will try." 

2. He inquired of me, "Will you go?" 

3. We declared, "We will never yield." 

4. They asked us, "Shall you be sorry?" 

5. They answered, "We shall have no time." 

6. He inquired of John, "When shall you be back?" 

7. The teacher asked us, "How many of you will come early?" 

8. He went off, saying to us, "You shall never see me again." 

190. Formation of the Present Perfect Tense. — The 
present perfect tense is formed by combining the auxili- 
ary have with the past participle; thus, 

I have called we have called 

you have called (thou hast called) you have called 

he has called they have called 

A few intransitive verbs occasionally use be instead of have in 
forming the present perfect tense: as, He is come; They are gone. 

There is usually a slight difference in meaning, however, between 
these two forms of the present perfect tense. For example, has 
come refers to the act of coming; is come denotes condition, being 
equivalent to a verb with a subjective complement. 

191. Uses of the Present Perfect Tense. — We have 
seen (183) that the present perfect tense denotes action, 
being, or condition complete at the present time; as, 

He has written a letter. (The writing of the letter is now com- 
plete.) 

The present perfect tense should not be used to 
denote action, being, or condition completed in the past ; 
as, He has come yesterday. Say "He came yesterday." 

On the other hand, the present perfect tense, and not 
the past tense, should be employed when the time 
extends up to and includes the present; as, I have never 
seen a steamship. Do not say "I never saw a steam- 
ship." 



VERBS 229 

Exercise 135 

(1) Complete the following sentences by supplying 
the perfect tense of the accompanying verb: 

1. They just . (Arrive.) 

2. We here a month. (Live.) 

3. So far he very little. (Do.) 

4. We *- not him for two months. (See.) 

5. I the place once before. (Visit.) 

6. I never such a person as he. (Know.) 

7. How many miles you today, boys? (Walk.) 

8. How many books you during the past year? 

(Read.) 

(2) Choose between the two tenses and give a reason 
for your choice: 

1. He came (has come) Wednesday. 

2. I never heard (have heard) such a speech. 

3. Shakespeare died (has died) in the year 1616. 

4. During the present year many changes took (have taken) 
place. 

5. Since the year 1800 the United States had (has had) four for- 
eign wars. 

192. Formation of the Past Perfect Tense. — The past 
perfect tense is formed by combining had, the past 
tense of the auxiliary have, with the past participle; 
thus : 

I had called we had called 

you had called (thou hadst called) ' you had called 
he had called they had called 

A few intransitive verbs occasionally use the past tense of be 
instead of the past tense of have in forming the past perfect tense; 
as, He was gone (had gone) when I got there. This form, however, 
often denotes condition rather than action. 



230 PARTS OF SPEECH 

193. Use of the Past Perfect Tense. — We have seen 
(183) that the past perfect tense denotes action, being, 
or condition completed at some point in past time; as, 

When he came, they had already arrived. 

They are represented as having arrived previously to 
the time of his coming. 

The adverb ago, which means "in past time," belongs with the 
past tense rather than with the past perfect; as, It happened (not 
had happened) many years ago. With the past perfect tense we 
should use before or previously instead of ago; as, It had happened 
many years before (or previously). 

Exercise 136 

(1) Explain the difference in the meaning of the two 
sentences in each group and name the tense of each 
verb: 

1. (a) He did much good, (b) He had done much good. 

2. (a) She has lived a happy life, (b) She had lived a happy 
life. 

3. (a) I have never seen him before, (b) I had never seen him 
before. 

(2) Name the two tenses in each sentence; then 
choose between the two and give a reason for your 
choice : 

1. Where have (had) you been today? 

2. Where have (had) you been yesterday? 

3. She was (had been) here an hour ago. 

4. She was (had been) here an hour before. 

5. How many presidents has (had) the United States had in all? 

6. How many presidents has (had) the United States had previ- 
ously to the Civil War? 



VERBS 231 

194. Formation of the Future Perfect Tense. — The 
future perfect tense is formed by combining the future 
tense of the verb have with the past participle; thus, 

I shall have called we shall have called 

you will have called (thou wilt have called) you will have called 
he will have called they will have called 

195. Use of the Future Perfect Tense. — We have seen 
(183) that the future perfect tense denotes action, 
being, or condition to be completed at some point in 
future time; as, 

By Monday they will have reached France. 

By Monday their reaching France will have taken 
place and be completed action. 

The future perfect tense is suited to exact and for- 
mal language, but is not commonly found in ordinary 
language. As a substitute for this tense, we may 
employ. one of the following forms of the verb: 

(1) The present tense; as, When he comes (shall have 
come), give him a hearty welcome. 

(2) The future tense; as, The work will be finished 
(will have been finished) by noon. 

(3) The perfect tense; as, I shall stay here until they 
have returned (shall have returned). 

Exercise 137 

Name the tenses in each of the following sentences 
and tell which of the two sounds the more natural: 

1. We shall hear (shall have heard) by noon. 

2. When duty calls (shall have called), we must obey. 

3. By tomorrow the crisis will be reached (will have been reached). 

4. There will be time enough after they have arrived (shall have 
arrived). 



232 PARTS OF SPEECH 

Exercise 138 

(1) Tell the tense of the verb in each of the following 
sentences : 

1. All but two of ours are gone. 

2. I fear it will be cold tomorrow. 

3. He has subscribed a hundred dollars. 

4. Stay here until you have heard from me. 

5. I cannot go until the situation has improved. 

6. By June the interest will have amounted to the principal. 

(2) In each sentence supply was, has been, or had 
been, and give a reason for your choice. 

1. The letter received yesterday. 

2. The letter here a month today. 

3. The letter here a month when he received it. 

4. William ready for us because he notified pre- 
viously that we were coming. 

5. Since 1804 the Bible, as a whole or in part, translated 

into upward of two hundred and twenty-five languages. 

196. Emphatic Forms of Tenses. — By combining the 
auxiliary verb do with the present infinitive (without 
to), we are able to form a present and a past tense 
expressing emphasis; thus, 

Present Tense: I do call Past Tense: I did call 

A form of tense used to express emphasis is called an 
emphatic form. 

The emphatic forms are commonly used in negative 

and interrogative sentences, where they may or may 

not express emphasis; as, 

I did not see him there. 
What do you think of this? 
Why did you not come sooner? 

Sometimes do is used merely to avoid repeating the verb; as, You 
write better than I do (write). 



VERBS 233 

197. Progressive Form of Tenses. — By combining the 
auxiliary verb be with the present participle, we are able 
to form tenses that represent action, being, or condition 
as going on or continuing at the time denoted by the 
verb; thus, 

Active Voice 
Present Tense: I am calling 

Past Tense: I was calling 

Future Tense: I shall be calling 

Pres. Perf. Tense: I have been calling 

Past Perf. Tense: I had been calling 

Fut. Perf. Tense: I shall have been calling 

Passive Voice 
Present Tense: I am being called 

Past Tense: I was being called 

A form of tense that represents action, being, or con- 
dition as going on or continuing at the time denoted by 
the verb, is called a progressive form. 

As here shown, in the passive voice there are only two progres- 
sive tenses, the present and the past. 

In preference to the regular progressive forms of the passive 
voice, we commonly use such expressions as "The house is burning 
(being burnt)," "The bread is baking (being baked)," "The rice is 
cooking (being cooked)," etc. 

Exercise 139 

(1) Point out the emphatic tense-forms, and tell 
which are used negatively and which interrogatively: 

1. Do write often. 6. Where did you leave them? 

2. Yes, we did wait. 7. Did you attend to the matter? 

3. Do come home at once. 8. Do tell us all about your visit, 

4. I do not know that man. 9. Do you leave tomorrow? 

5. Did I not tell you this? 10, He did go to France, 



234 PARTS OF SPEECH 

(2) Point out the progressive tense-forms and tell the 
tense of each: 

1. What was he doing? 

2. They are coming soon. 

3. They are calling for you. 

4. They are being drilled daily. 

5. Shall we be undertaking too much? 

6. He is being trained for the match. 

7. How long have you been living in this place? 

8. We had been waiting only an hour when you came. 

(3) Substitute an emphatic or progressive tense-form 
wherever it will sound more natural than the form used: 

1. I know not when he arrived. 

2. He did nothing but complain. 

3. They call you; hear you them? 

4. What means he by this threat? 

5. Heard you this speech yesterday? 

6. Talk not to me about what has been. 

7. Not more than five minutes ago he sat here. 

8. Know you what we have talked about for the past hour? 

Mood 

198. Mood Defined. — The form or use of a verb may 
show the manner in which it asserts action, being, or 
condition; thus, 

(1) Here he comes. (2) What if he come? (3) Come here at once. 

In the first sentence comes shows by its form that it 
expresses a fact. In the second sentence come shows 
by its form that it expresses possibility. In the third 
sentence come shows by its use that it expresses a com- 
mand. The form or use of a verb that shows the man- 
ner in which it asserts action, being, or condition is 
called mood. 



VERBS 235 

Mood is the form or use of a verb that shows the 
manner in which it asserts action, being, or condition. 

199. Three Moods. — As implied in the foregoing dis- 
cussion, there are three ways in which a verb may 
assert action, being, or condition: 

(1) It may express a fact actual or assumed; as, 

He came last night. (Actual fact.) 

If he came, I am glad. (Fact assumed.) 

The mood used to express a fact actual or assumed is 
called the indicative mood. 

(2) It may express not a fact, but wish, volition, pos- 
sibility, or mere thought; as, 

God bless us all. (Wish.) 

I move that he go. (Volition.) 

I fear lest it fail. (Possibility.) 

What if you were I? (Mere thought.) 

The mood used to express wish, volition, possibility, 
or mere thought is called the subjunctive mood. It 'is so 
called because the subjunctive mood is generally used 
in subordinate, or subjoined, clauses. 

(3) It may express a command, request, or entreaty; as, 

Come here at once. (Command.) 
Sit down if you please. (Request.) 
Let us try to win, boys. (Entreaty.) 

The mood used to express a command, request, or 
entreaty is called the imperative mood. 

The indicative mood is the mood used to express a 
fact actual or assumed. 

The subjunctive mood is the mood used to express 
wish, volition, possibility, or mere thought. 

The imperative mood is the mood used to express a 
command, request, or entreaty. 






236 



PARTS OF SPEECH] 



The difference between the indicative mood and the subjunctive 
mood, in general terms, is this: the indicative makes a simple, direct 
predication with regard to fact; the subjunctive, in addition to mak- 
ing a predication, implies doubt, volition, or the like on the speak- 
er's part. 

200. Mood-Forms. — The verb be, in the present and 
the past tense, is inflected as follows: 









Present Tense 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Indicative 

Singular 
I am 

you are (thou art) 
he is 


Subjunctive Imperative 

Singular Singular 

1. I be 

2. you be (thou be) 2. be (you, thou) 

3. he be 




Plural 




Plural Plural 


1. 

2. 
3. 


we are 
you are 
they are 




1. we be 

2. you be 2. be (you, ye) 

3. they be 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Indicative 

Singular 
I was 

you were (thou 
he was 


wast, 


Past Tense 

Subjunctive 

Singular 

1. I were 

wert) 2. you were (thou wert, were) 

3. he were 




Plural 




Plural 


1. 


we were 




1. we were 


2. 
3. 


you were 
they were 




2. you were 

3. they were 



Note: 

(1) Am, art, is, are, was, and wast are indicative only. 

(2) Be in the first and the third person is subjunctive only; in 
the second person it is subjunctive or imperative according to use. 

(3) Were in the first and third person singular is subjunctive 
only; in the plural it is indicative or subjunctive according to use. 
Wert is usually subjunctive but may be indicative. 



VERBS 



237 



As an example of the mood-forms of verbs other than 
be, note the inflection of the verb call in the present 
and the past tense: 









Present Tense 




Indicative 






Subjunctive Imperative 




Singular 






Singular Singular 


1. 


I call 




1. 


I call 


2. 
3. 


you call (thou 
he calls 

Plural 


callest) 


2. 
3. 


you call (thou call) 2. call (you, thou) 
he call 

Plural Plural 


1. 


we call 




1. 


we call 


2. 
3. 


you call 
they call 

Indicative 




2. 
3. 


you call 2. call (you, ye) 
they call 

Past Tense 

Subjunctive 


1. 


Singular 
I called 






Singular 
1. I called 


2. 
3. 


you called (thou calledst) 
he called 


2. you called (thou called) 

3. he called 




Plural 






Plural 


1. 


we called 






1. we called 


2. 

3. 


you called 
they called 






2. you called 

3. they called 



Note: 

(1) Callest, calls, and calledst are indicative only. 

(2) Call in the third person singular is subjunctive only. In the 
second person singular it is subjunctive or imperative according to 
use. Otherwise it is indicative, subjunctive, or imperative accord- 
ing to use. 

(3) Called in the second person singular (old form) is subjunctive 
only. Otherwise it is indicative or subjunctive according to use. 

(4) Both the subjunctive and the imperative lack person and 
number endings. Only one form is used in a tense and that form is 
identical with the indicative plural. 



238 PARTS OF SPEECH 

From the foregoing it can be seen that the number of 
mood-forms in the Modern English verb is not large. 
The distinction of mood, therefore, is based largely on 
the use of a verb. Note these examples: 

Now they call. (Indicative: fact.) 

See that he call. (Subjunctive: volition.) 

Call for him at once. (Imperative: command.) 

Exercise 140 

(1) Tell which of the following verb forms belong to 
only one mood and which belong in common to two or 
more moods, then tell the mood or moods to which 
each belongs: 

be am are wert call called callest 

was art were is calls callest 

(2) Inflect the verb write in the present and the past 
tense and point out each of its distinct mood-forms. 

201. Uses of the Indicative Mood. — The indicative 
mood, as we have seen (199), is used to express a fact 
actual or assumed. It is employed in the following: 

(1) Affirmative statements; as, He is here. 

(2) Negative statements; as, He is not here. 

(3) Questions; as, Is he here? 

Here the speaker calls for the statement of a fact by another. 

(4) Assumptions or suppositions; as, If he is here, it 
is well. 

Here the speaker assumes a fact, then draws a conclusion from it. 

The indicative mood expresses a fact actual or assumed in a sub- 
ordinate clause as well as in a principal; as, 

» If she was there, I failed to see her. 

Although he is young, he will make a good officer. 



VERBS 239 

Exercise 141 

(1) Point out the verbs in the indicative mood and 
tell how each is used: 

1. Hope springs with you. 

2. What is this you tell me? 

3. Let us know if they withdraw. 

4. You say the sun shines bright. 

5. I had hitherto held my tongue. 

6. What plant we in this apple tree? 

7. You talk of wondrous things you see. 

8. They never complained, though they suffered. 

9. In heaven we place a manly trust, 

That truth and justice will prevail. 
10. Is this the time to be gloomy and sad, 

When our mother Nature laughs around? 

(2) Point out the verbs in the indicative mood in 
Exercise 35, parts 1 and 3. 

202. Uses of the Subjunctive Mood. — In Old English 
the subjunctive mood had a wide use. In Modern 
English, however, its place has largely been taken by 
auxiliary verbs. 

In ordinary language, the subjunctive mood is now 
used chiefly to express: 

(1) A wish or prayer; as, 

God bless you. 
Heaven help us all. 
I wish I were at home. 

(2) Volition (that is, will or determination to bring 
something about); as, 

Everybody rise. 

See that no one enter. 

I move that the House adjourn. 



240 PARTS OF SPEECH 

(3) Condition contrary to fact; as, 

I would go if I were you. 
I would ride if I had a horse. 

Of like nature is a clause introduced by as if or as though; as, He 
acted as if he were sorry. 

The subjunctive mood is also commonly used in cer- 
tain idioms: had rather, had better, had as lief, would 
rather, would better, so be it, as it were, etc. 

In literary language, the subjunctive mood, in addition to the 
foregoing uses, may express: 

(1) Anticipation (that is, looking forward to some occurrence); as, 
Let us wait until he return. 

(2) Obligation or propriety (that is, what is right or proper), as, 
It is best that he keep still. 

(3) Ideal certainty (that is, certainty in an imaginary case); as, 
It were (would be) folly to attempt it. 

(4) Indirectness (that is, in an indirect question or quotation) ; as, 
I wondered if it were true. 

Occasionally in literary language the present subjunctive is used 
in conditions instead of the present or future indicative; as, If it be 
possible, let us remain. 

Caution. — We should be careful not to use the indicative was 
instead of the subjunctive were in the expression of wishes and con- 
ditions contrary to fact, also in clauses introduced by as if or as 
though. Herein lies the main source of error in the use of mood- 
forms. Note these examples: 

Incorrect Use Correct Use 

I wish I was at home today. I wish I were at home today. 

If I was you, I would speak. If I were you, I would speak. 

He talks as if he was sorry. He talks as if he were sorry. 

She looked like she was ill. She looked as if she were ill. 

He walks like he was tired. He walks as if he were tired. 

I wish she was going too. I wish she were going too. 



VERBS 241 

Exercise 142 

(1) Point out the verbs in the subjunctive mood and 
tell what each one expresses: 

1. Heaven help him! 

2. Everybody sit still. 

3. I would rather not tell. 

4. See that each one keep quiet. 

5. It is proper that this be done. 

6. What would you do if you were he? 

7. I move that this meeting adjourn. 

8. He looks as if he were dissatisfied. 

9. I think that you had better go at once. 
10. I wish that I were in a position to help. 

(2) Supply was or were in each blank and give a rea- 
son for your choice: 

1. I wish I a boy again. 

2. It happened when I — a boy. 

3. He looked as if he uneasy. 

4. It very cold while he here. 

5. If it not so cold, we would go. 

6. We all felt as though the time lost. 

7. He — so overjoyed that he unable to speak. 

8. If I you, I would tell who it that did it. 

(3) Choose between the two expressions and give a 
reason for your choice: 

1. He was (were) much surprised. 

2. They started before I was (were) ready. 

3. If I was (were) ready now, I would go along. 

4. He speaks like he was (as if he were) interested. 

(4) Explain the difference in the meaning of the two 
sentences in each group and tell the mood used in each: 

1. (a) Heaven help them! (6) Heaven helps them. 

2. (a) Every boy try hard. (6) Every boy tries hard. 



242 PARTS OF SPEECH 

203. Time Denoted by the Tenses of the Subjunctive. — 
In the indicative mood the name of a tense usually sug- 
gests the time denoted by the tense; thus, 

You were fortunate if this was true. (Past tense and past time.) 

In the subjunctive mood the case is often different. 
The present tense may denote either present or future 
time, the past tense may denote present time, the past 
perfect tense may denote past time; thus, 

You are fortunate if this be true. (Present time.) 
You will be fortunate if this prove true. (Future time.) 
You would be fortunate if this were true. (Present time.) 
You would have been fortunate if this had been true. (Past 
time.) 

The past subjunctive in a subordinate clause may denote the 
same time as that denoted by the verb in the principal clause: as, 
You act as if you were glad (present time); You acted as if you wen 
glad (past time). 

Exercise 143 

(1) Point out the verbs in the indicative and in th( 
subjunctive mood and tell the time denoted by each: 

1. God save the men! 

2. It was easy to do this. 

3. It were easy now to do this. 

4. If this was done, it was well. 

5. If this is done, it will be well. 

6. If this were now done, it would be well. 

7. If this had been done, it would have been well. 

8. It now looks as if our efforts were all in vain. 

9. It then looked as if our efforts were all in vain. 

10. Our men are on their guard lest any trouble develop. 

11. If the truth had been known, no harm would have resulted. 

12. If this plan were put into operation, it would threaten orji 
national independence and life. 



VERBS 243 

(2) Supply was or were in each blank and give a rea- 
son for your choice: 

1. If he uneasy, he would show it. 

2. If he uneasy, he did not show it. 

3. It seemed to us that the matter adjusted. 

4. The matter looked to us as if it adjusted. 

204. Uses of the Imperative Mood. — The imperative 

mood may express a command, request, entreaty, or 

mere consent; thus, 

Run for your lives. (Command.) 

Give me your hand, please. (Request.) 

Let us try to work in harmony. (Entreaty.) 

All right; come (you may come) tomorrow. (Consent.) 

Sometimes the imperative expresses condition; as, Do 
(if you do) this and I will reward you. 

The imperative mood is limited to the present tense and to the 
second person. 

Exercise 144 

Write five sentences, using each of these verbs in the 
imperative mood, then tell what each verb expresses: 
sing play tell draw study 

Mood-Ideas Expressed by Auxiliaries 

205. Modal Auxiliaries. — While the number of mood- 
forms in Modern English is small, our language is 
richly supplied with auxiliary verbs for the expression 
of mood-ideas. These modal auxiliaries have largely 
supplanted the subjunctive mood, and to a certain 
extent have taken the place of the imperative mood. 

The following auxiliaries may express mood-ideas: 

Present shall will may can must ought 
Past should would might could 



244 PARTS OF SPEECH 

206. Shall and Will. — Originally shall meant to owe, 
be under obligation; will meant to wish, resolve, deter- 
mine. 

If we use shall in the first person and will in the sec- 
ond or third, the original meaning practically fades out, 
leaving these verbs as mere tense auxiliaries expressing 
simple futurity (187). 

But if we reverse the order, using will in the first 
person and shall in the second or third, the original 
meaning is still traceable. Shall and will are then 
modal auxiliaries expressing volition on the speaker's 
part (188). 

The following rules relate in detail to the use of shall 
and will in their different constructions: 

(1) In Statements. 

Here the general rules already given (187, 188) apply: 

To express futurity (that is, prediction as to what 
will happen), we use shall in the first person, will in the 
second or third. 

To express volition (that is, will or determination) on 
the speaker's part, we use will in the first person, shall 
in the second or third. 

Note the following examples: 

I shall (you or he will) win. (Futurity : prediction.) 
We will spend a month there. (Volition: intention.) 
I will pay you on next Monday. (Volition: promise.) 
Boys, you shall have a holiday. (Volition: promise.) 
You (or they) shall not go. (Volition: determination.) 

If will is emphasized, it expresses determination on the part of 
the subject in all the persons; as, I (you or he) will never yield. 

Sometimes will expresses a request or mild command; as, You 
will attend to this, please. 



VERBS 245 

(2) In Questions. 

In the first person we use shall; as, Shall I stay? 
In the second or third person we use the auxiliary 
expected in the answer; thus, 

Question Answer Expected 

Will you go along? I will (or will not). 

Shall you be glad? I shall (or shall not). 

Will he come soon? He will (or will not). 

Shall he be taken? He shall (or shall not). 

(3) In Clauses Expressing or Implying Condition. 
We use shall in all the persons to express futurity, 

will in all the persons to express volition on the part of 
the subject; thus, 

What if I (you or he) shall not win? (Futurity.) 
What if I (you or he) will not agree? (Volition.) 
Clauses of this kind are introduced by if, unless, though, although, 
when, or the like. . . 

We may also use shall in all the persons to express anticipation; 
as, Let them wait until I (you or he) shall return. 

(4) In Indirect Statements and Questions. 

We use the auxiliary that would be employed in the 

direct form; thus, 

Indirect Form Direct Form 

He says that he shall be glad. I shall be glad. 

He promises that he will come. I will come. 

They ask if you will attend. Will you (or they) attend? 

They ask if they shall attend. Shall we attend? 

But will is not to be used in the first person to 
express futurity; as, He says that I shall (not will) lose. 

Caution. — -We should guard against the common error 
of using will instead of shall: 

(1) In the first person in questions; as, Where shall 
(not will) I find you? What shall (not will) I do? 



246 PARTS OF SPEECH 

(2) In the first person in statements expressing a 
mere prediction of result or condition; as, I shall (not 
will) lose (be glad, sorry, or the like). 

(3) In the second person in questions expressing a 
mere prediction of result or condition; as, Shall (not 
will) you lose (be glad, sorry, or the like)? 

Exercise 145 

(1) Explain the difference in the meaning of the two 
auxiliaries : 

1. I will (shall) stay until you return. 

2. You will (shall) write again before I leave. 

3. He will (shall) not come until the work is completed. 

4. James shall (will) answer before I send the money. 

5. You shall (will) have a new hat when we reach home. 

6. Will (shall) they be taken back to the front again? 

7. Will (shall) you continue the work for the government? 

8. What if she will (shall) not return after her school closes? 

9. He says that you will (shall) remain until the war ends. 

10. They ask if you will (shall) be at home when they arrive. 

11. I shall (will) not be at the meeting tomorrow. 

12. You will (shall) hear from me before that time. 

(2) Supply shall or will in each blank and give a rea- 
son for your choice: 

1. We be there. (Promise.) 

2. We be there. (Prediction.) 

3. you be there? (Prediction.) 

4. they be there? (Prediction.) 

5. You please be seated. (Request.) 

6. What if they not yield? (Futurity.) 

7. What if they not yield? (Volition.) 

8. Children, you have a holiday. (Promise.) 

9. He not stay. (Determination on speaker's part.) 

10. He not stay. (Determination on part of subject.) 



VERBS 247 

(3) Supply shall or will in each blank and explain the 
meaning : 

1. Which of you help me? 

2. he be glad to leave us? 

3. you be glad to leave us? 

4. Where we find you at noon? 

5. We miss the train, I fear. 

6. You miss the train, I fear. 

7. we expect you this evening? 

8. We think that we be ready in time. 

9. He thinks that he be ready in time. 

10. She wants to know if you assist her. 

11. She wants to know if you be very busy. 

12. We promise you now that we do our best. 

13. We assure you that we not feel slighted. 

14. We intend to remain here until he return. 

207. Should and Would. — The rules just presented 
(206) for the use of shall and will in their different con- 
structions apply also to the use of should and would. 
Note the following examples: 

(1) In Statements. 

I should be glad to help. (Futurity: prediction.) 

He would be glad to help. (Futurity: prediction.) 

We would help you if you asked us. (Volition: promise.) 

They would not go if they could. (Volition on part of subject.) 

(2) In Questions. 

Question Answer Expected 

Should we stay here? (In the first person.) 

How should you feel? We should feel . 

What would you give? I would give . 



What would they say? They would say . 

(3) In Clauses Expressing or Implying Condition. 

What if we (you or they) should fail? (Futurity.) 
What if we (you or they) would not agree? (Volition.) 
They waited until he should come back. (Anticipation.) 



248 PARTS OF SPEECH 

(4) In Indirect Statements and Questions. 

Indirect Form Direct Form 

He said that he should be ready. I shall be ready. 

She promised that she would try. I will try. 

They inquired if you would help. Will you (or they) help? 

They inquired if they should go. Shall we go? 

In the foregoing uses should and would denote future 
time, but do so less vividly than shall and will. In 
some cases, as in indirect statements and questions, 
they form a past future tense (189). 

The following additional uses of should and would are 
to be noted: 

(1) Should in all the persons may denote obligation 
or propriety, also natural likelihood, in the present; 
thus, 

I (you or he) should try. (Obligation or propriety.) 
That should turn out well. (Natural likelihood.) 

(2) Would in all the persons may denote determina- 
tion, also customary action, being, or condition, in the 
past; thus, 

He would not attend. (Determination in the past.) 
He would often sing. (Customary action in the past.) 

Caution. — We should guard against the errors com- 
monly arising from the use of would instead of should in 
the first person in questions, in the first person in state- 
ments expressing futurity, and in the second person in 
questions expressing futurity; thus, 

Should (not would) I find him at home now? 
I should (not would) be surprised if it happened. 
Should (not would) you be surprised if it happened? 



VERBS 249 

Exercise 146 

(1) Explain the difference in the meaning of the two 
auxiliaries : 

1. I should (would) try. 

2. Should (would) he help you? 

3. Should (would) you pay this? 

4. They should (would) not stay here. 

5. Should (would) you do this if you were I? 

6. He inquired if you should (would) be ready. 

7. They said that they should (would) stay here. 

8. What if they should (would) not agree to this? 

(2) Supply should or would in each blank and give a 
reason for your choice: 

1. What we do next? 

2. What if it rain? 

3. That be impossible. 

4. We be glad to help you. 

5. He be glad to help you. 

6. you be sorry to leave us? 

7. they come back? (Volition.) 

8. they come back? (Propriety.) 

9. He not agree to this. (Determination.) 

10. I be greatly disappointed if you fail. 

11. I force them to go if they not go otherwise. 

12. They often speak of their former home but 

never consent to return. 

208. May and Can. — The auxiliaries may and can are 
often confounded. Note the difference in their use: 

May expresses permission, possibility, wish, or pur- 
pose; thus, 

Permission: Now you may enter. 
Possibility: I may go or I may not. 
Wish: I wish that you may win; May you win, 
Purpose: We have come that we may help you, 



250 PARTS OF SPEECH 

Can expresses ability or possibility; thus, 

Ability: Can you speak French? 
Possibility: This can be done very easily. 

Can should not be used to express permission; as, Can we speak? 
Say "May we speak?" 

There is the same difference of meaning between 
might and could as between may and can. The past 
forms, however, make a milder or more guarded asser- 
tion than the present forms. Compare, "I might go" 
with "I may go"; also "I can sing" with "I could sing." 

Might and could, as also should, would, or other past 
forms, are often used in subordinate clauses following 
the past or past perfect tense in the principal clause; 
thus, 

He said that he might (could, should, or would) win. 

209. Must and Ought. — Originally must and ought 
were past forms, but now they are used only as present 
forms. They are used as follows: 

Must expresses necessity; as, You must obey me. 

Ought, like should, expresses obligation or propriety, 
also natural likelihood; thus, 

Obligation or propriety: You ought to study. 
Natural likelihood: A man of your vigor ought to live to be very 
old. 

Exercise 147 

(1) Explain the difference in the meaning of the two 
auxiliaries : 

1. You may (can) walk faster. 

2. He may (might) not be at home. 

3. You must (ought to) be more careful. 

4. They can (could) not explain the mystery. 

5. He said that he might (could) not remain longer. 



VERBS 251 

(2) Supply may or can in each blank and give a rea- 
son for your choice: 

1. I be excused? 5. It rain before 

2. you spell lose? we get back. 

3. heaven help you! 6. We do this in order that 

4. How much you lift? we help you. 

(3) Supply might or could in each blank and give a 
reason for your choice: 

1. I not wait longer. 

2. He asked if he go with us. 

3. We not understand what he said. 

4. We did this in order that we help you. 

5. I doubt that you do this even if you wished. 

6. They inquired if they be allowed to stay longer. 

(4) Supply must or ought to in each blank and give a 
reason for your choice: 

1. This be done. (Propriety.) 

2. The law be obeyed. (Necessity.) 

3. You be appreciative. (Obligation.) 

4. Your plan be successful. (Natural likelihood.) 

210. Subjunctive Ideas Expressed by Auxiliary Verbs. — 
To sum up, the following subjunctive ideas, independ- 
ent or dependent, may be expressed by the use of 
auxiliary verbs: 

(1) Anticipation: He waited until I should come. 

(2) Volition: I will be there; You shall not go. 

(3) Wish: May he succeed; I wish that he may succeed. 

(4) Obligation or propriety: I should (or ought to) go. 

(5) Natural likelihood: He should (or ought to) do well. 

(6) Possibility:" I may go; I might go; It can be done. 

(7) Ideal certainty: That would be excellent. 

(8) Condition: What if we should not attend the meeting? 



252 PARTS OF SPEECH 

Exercise 148 

In the following sentences, express the subjunctive 
ideas by the use of auxiliary verbs, then tell which of 
the two forms of expression sounds the more natural: 

1. What if it rain? 

2. Every one follow me. 

3. God bless our country! 

4. Let us wait till he come. 

5. That were too much to ask. 

6. We fear lest our plan fail. 

7. I move that he be appointed. 

8. It is right that we be supported. 

9. The Lord judge between you and me. 
10. It is our wish that he meet with success. 

211. Mood-Ideas in Conditional Sentences. — A condi- 
tional sentence consists of two parts — a condition and a 
conclusion; as, 7/ J go (condition), he will go (conclu- 
sion) . 

There are two types of conditional sentences, which 
are named according to the nature of the condition: 

(1) Neutral conditions; as, If he is here, it is well. 

Here the condition implies nothing either way; he 
may be here or he may not. Hence, it is called neutral. 
The indicative mood is used in both the condition and 
the conclusion, in any tense required by the meaning to 
be expressed; thus, 

Present: If he is here, it is well. 
Past: If he was here, it was well. 
Future: If he shall be here, it will be well. 

Sometimes in literary language the present subjunc- 
tive is used in the condition instead of the present or 
future indicative (202) ; as, If it rain, I shall stay. 



VERBS 253 

The imperative mood or a modal verb-phrase may be 
used in the conclusion: as, If you fail, try again; You 
may go now if you wish. 

By the use of should or would a milder, or less vivid, 
future condition may be formed than by the use of the 
future indicative; as, If it should rain, I would stay. 

(2) Conditions contrary to fact; as, // he were here, it 
would be well. 

Here the condition implies that the opposite of what 
is supposed, is true. Hence, it is called contrary to fact. 
The subjunctive mood is used in the condition, a modal 
verb-phrase is used in the conclusion. The past tense 
refers to the present, the past perfect tense refers to 
the past; thus, 

Present: If he were here, it would be well. 

Past: If he had been here, it would have been well. 

The foregoing distinctions as to mood apply also to 
clauses introduced by though or although. 

Exercise 149 

(1) In the following sentences tell (a) the type of 
each condition; (6) the time to which it refers; (c) the 
mood of each predicate verb not a modal verb-phrase: 

1. If you say this, you err. 

2. If you said this, you erred. 

3. If you say this, you will err. 

4. If you should say this, you would err. 

5. If you had said this, you would have erred. 

6. If you were saying this, you would be erring. 

7. If the speaker is here, let him come forward. 

8. If this be your will, we shall postpone the matter. 

9. If the boys have not yet come, we must send for them. 
10. If we had played as we usually do, we should have won. 



254 PARTS OF SPEECH 

(2) Choose the correct mood-form or the mood-form 
sounding the more natural and give a reason for your 
choice : 

1. If it be (is) possible, help me out. 

2. If George come (comes), invite him in. 

3. If this was (were) Monday, I would start. 

4. If it get (gets) cold, take a wrap with you. • 

5. If she was (were) here now, what would you do? 

6. If she was (were) here then, I did not see her. 

7. Though I was (were) surprised, I did not show it. 

8. Though I was (were) surprised, I would not show it. 

Verbals, or Non- Modal Forms 

In addition to mood-forms and modal verb-phrases, 
the verb has certain non-modal forms known as verbals. 
These, as we have seen (22-24), denote action, being, or 
condition, but, instead of predicating, as verbs do, they 
have the grammatical use of nouns, adjectives, or 
adverbs. They are infinitives, participles, and gerunds. 

Infinitives 

212. Infinitive Defined.— An infinitive is a form of the 
verb commonly preceded by the word to as its sign and 
denoting action, being, or condition without restriction 
as to person and number (22); thus, 

We hope to get back soon. 

It is hard to be falsely accused. 

You seem to have been looking for me. 

Sometimes to has no meaning of its own but serves merely to 
mark the infinitive; as, I like to read (that is, reading). Sometimes 
to has the full function of a preposition, showing the relation 
between the infinitive and some other word; as, I have a house to 
rent (a house for renting). It is simpler, however, always to regard 



VERBS 255 

to as a part of the infinitive and for that reason it is so treated in 
this book. 

When to is separated from the verbal part by an adverb, the 
infinitive is said to be cleft, or split; as, to better prepare, to carefully 
avoid. The cleft infinitive is not generally approved by the best 
usage, but of late years it has been gaining ground and is occasion- 
ally employed by reputable writers and speakers. 

213. Infinitive Without To. — The infinitive is used 
without to after the following: 

(1) The auxiliary verbs shall, will, may, can, must, 
and do; as, I shall be there; You do not try. 

(2) Commonly after dare, need, please, and go: as, I 
dare not tell; You need not go; Please try; Go bring -it. 

(3) Commonly after see, hear, feel, let, make, bid, 
help, and have, in connection with the direct object: as, 
I saw him go; I felt it break; Let me try; Help me do it. 

(4) In certain idioms: as, You had better stay; I can- 
not but regret the loss. 

Exercise. 150 

In the following sentences supply to where it is 
needed before the infinitive: 

1. I dare not say. 7. They need not worry. 

2. Please help me decide. 8. He would have me stay. 

3. They asked me write. 9. We regret miss that. 

4. He bade me write. 10. Let me see the letter. 

5. Will you sing for us? 11. You ought do better. 

6. You make me blush. 12. I would rather stay here. 

214. Forms of the Infinitive. — The infinitive is both 
simple and phrasal in form. Note the following table: 

Active Passive 

Present: (to) call (to) be called 

Past: (to) have called (to) have been called 



256 PARTS OF SPEECH 

As here shown, the infinitive has two tense-forms in 
each voice — the present and the past. 

The present active infinitive is the simple, or root, 
form of the verb, and for that reason is sometimes 
called the root infinitive. 

The past infinitive is formed by combining the pres- 
ent infinitive of have with the past participle of the verb. 

The passive infinitives are formed by combining the 
infinitives of be with the past participle of the verb. 

Exercise 151 

Form the infinitives active and passive of the verbs 
tell, play, sing, and write. 

215. Tenses of the Infinitive: Use. — The tenses of the 
infinitive denote time not absolutely but relatively; that 
is, they show whether the action, being, or condition 
expressed by the infinitive is incomplete or completed 
at the time denoted by the principal verb. Note these 
examples : 

Present Infinitive Past Infinitive 

They want to help us. He is said to have come. 

They wanted to help us. He was said to have come. 

They will want to help us. He will be said to have come. 

To help denotes incomplete action, in the present 
time after want, in the past time after wanted, in the 
future time after will want. 

To have come denotes completed action, in the present 
time after is said, in the past time after was said, in 
the future time after will be said. 

The present infinitive denotes incomplete action, 
being, or condition at the time denoted by the principal 
verb. 



VERBS 257 

The past infinitive denotes completed action, being, or 
condition at the time denoted by the principal verb. 

The verbs hope, expect, plan, intend, and the like relate to the 
future rather than to the past and are therefore correctly followed 
by the present infinitive, not by the past; as, I expected (or had 
expected) to go (not to have gone). 

Exekcise 152 

(1) Explain the difference in the meaning of the two 
sentences in each group: 

1. (a) I am glad to read the book. (6) I am glad to have read 
the book. 

2. (a) He seemed to be interested, (b) He seemed to have been 
interested. 

3. (a) It is a privilege to know him. {b) It is a privilege to have 
known him. 

(2) Choose between the two forms in each sentence 
and give a reason for your choice: 

1. I intended to come (have come) sooner. 

2. I expected to meet (have met) him here. 

3. I had hoped to be (have been) here earlier. 

4. I intended to have gone (had intended to go) Monday. 

5. We planned to have met (had planned to meet) him here. 

216. Uses of the Infinitive. — The infinitive may have 
the following grammatical uses: 

(1) Subject; as, To forgive is divine. 

The infinitive as the real, or logical, subject may be in apposition 
with the expletive it (112, 3) as the grammatical subject; as, It is 
best to go (that is, It, namely, to go, is best). 

(2) Subjective complement; as, To stop now is to fail. 

(3) Direct object; as, I like to walk (walking). 

(4) Secondary object (165); as, He taught me to read 
(reading). 



258 PARTS OF SPEECH 

(5) Retained object (173); as, We were taught to 
swim (swimming). 

(6) With a preposition; as, No way remains but 
(except) to stay (staying). 

(7) Appositive: as, Your desire to help is gratifying; 
He has but one aim, namely, to do good. 

(8) Exclamation; as, To think of such a thing! 

(9) Adjectival modifier; as, She is a person to be 
admired (an admirable person). 

(10) Adverbial modifier: as, I come to speak (for the 
purpose of speaking); This is good to eat (for eating). 

(11) Predicative use (217); as, I know it to be true. 

Exercise 153 

Point out the infinitives and tell the grammatical use 
of each: 

1. He is a man to be trusted. 

2. To be great is to be good. 

3. We went to see the parade. 

4. This is too good to believe. 

5. What is it to be a gentleman? 

6. I should like to speak to him. 

7. They were taught to rise early. 

8. We are anxious to start at once. 

9. We were told to wait an hour. 

10. Be ashamed to catch yourself idle. 

11. Oh, to be there for just one month! 

12. They came too late to be of service. 

13. To tell you the truth, I feel uneasy. 

14. Here is the place to spend the night. 

15. We should teach our boys to be manly. 

16. The plan to stay here meets with my approval. 

17. It is very easy to misunderstand other people. 

18. You are to be congratulated on your achievement. 



VERBS 259 

217. Infinitive Clause. — A noun or pronoun with an 
infinitive may have the force of a substantive clause. 
Note the following examples: 

I believed him to be my friend. 
I believed that he was my friend. 

The foregoing sentences have the same meaning. 
The group of words him to be my friend is equivalent 
and parallel to the clause that he was my friend. They 
have the same grammatical office, both being the direct 
object of the verb believed. Him corresponds to the 
subject nominative he; to be, to the predicate verb was; 
friend, to the subjective complement friend. Hence, 
him to be my friend is called an infinitive clause; him, 
the subject of an infinitive; to be, a predicate infinitive 
(216, 11); friend, a predicate noun of an infinitive. 
. An infinitive clause is found after the following: 

(1) The verbs wish, expect, think, believe, know, or the 
like; as, I expect him to be here. 

(2) The preposition for; as, I waited for him to call. 

A predicate noun or pronoun of an infinitive clause is in the 
objective case in agreement with the subject of the clause; as, I 
believe it to be him (not he). A substantive so used, however, is 
not to be confounded with a subjective complement; as, I should 
like to be he (not him). 

Exercise 154 

(1) Point out the infinitive clause in each sentence 
and tell its subject and its predicate infinitive: 

1. I thought him to be unwise. 

2. I want you to remain with us. 

3. I had supposed them to have gone. 

4. It is impossible for us to stay here. 



260 PARTS OF SPEECH 

(2) Choose the proper case-form in each sentence and 
give a reason for your choice: 

1. It seemed to be he (him). 5. Who (whom) do you think it 

2. I knew it to be he (him). to have been? 

3. Who (whom) did it seem to 6. I thought it to be she (her). 

be? 7. Would you like to be I (me)? 

4. Who (whom) do you think it 8. We had supposed it to be 

was? they (them). 

Participle 

218. Participle Defined. — A participle is a form of the 
verb sharing in the nature of a verb and an adjective 
(23) ; thus, 

He kept me waiting an hour. 
Hearing my name mentioned, I arose. 
Having finished the work, they went away. 

219. Forms of the Participle. — The participle is both 
simple and phrasal in form. Note the following table: 

Active Passive 

Present: calling being called 

Past : called called 

Phrasal Past: having called having been called 

As here shown, the participle has three tense-forms in 
each voice — the present, the past, and the phrasal past. 

(1) The present participle is formed by adding ing to 
the root of the verb; as, readme, coming. 

(2) The past participle is formed, usually on the root 
of the verb, as follows: 

a. By adding ed, d, or t if the verb is regular (185); 
as, talked, fled, mean£. 

b. By adding en or n if the verb is irregular (185); 

as, broken, taken, blown. 

Sometimes there is no added ending for the past participle, but 
the root- vowel of an irregular verb may change; as, cut, read, come. 



VERBS 261 

The past tense and the past participle of regular verbs have the 
same form; as, present bend, past bent, past participle bent. 

(3) The phrasal past participle is formed by combin- 
ing the present active participle of have with the past 
participle of the verb ; as, having fled. 

(4) The passive participles are formed by combining 
the participles of be with the past participle of the verb; 
as, being praised, having been praised. 

Exercise 155 

Form the participles active and passive of the verbs 
bring, burst, drag, eat, and give. 

220. Uses of the Participle : Grammatical. — The partici- 
ple may have the following grammatical uses: 

(1) Appositive modifier: as, There is Robert, still 
waiting for you; Seeing his danger, he fled. 

An appositive participial phrase may be equivalent to an adjec- 
tival or adverbial clause. For example, the foregoing sentences may 
appear thus: There is Robert, who is still waiting for you; When he 
saw his danger, he fled. 

Sometimes an appositive participial modifier is coordinate in 
meaning with the principal verb; as, He went off, taking (and took) 
his belongings. 

(2) Subjective complement: as, He came rushing up; 
They went hurrying by. 

A participle as used in the foregoing examples also has an adverb- 
ial force. 

(3) Objective complement: as, I heard him calling for 
you; They kept us waiting for an hour. 

(4) Predicate of an absolute phrase (90, 5); as, Night 
coming on, we halted. 



262 PARTS OF SPEECH 

The phrase Night coming on has no grammatical con- 
nection with the rest of the sentence and for that rea- 
son is called absolute, a term meaning "set off." The 
phrase is equivalent to the adverbial clause since night 
was coming on. The noun Night, which is called the 
nominative absolute (90, 5), stands in the relation of sub- 
ject to the participle coming, while the latter modifies 
Night, and, at the same time, bears to it the relation 
of predicate. 

A few participles, as granting, granted, providing, provided, and sup- 
posing, may be used absolutely, or independently, without a subject; 
as, Granted you are right, what follows? 

Caution. — We should see that the subject of a parti- 
ciple is clearly expressed. Otherwise the participle is 
said to be misrelated; as, Saddling our horses, the ascent 
was begun. Here the participle Saddling is misrelated 
because it has no noun or pronoun to attach itself to. 
We should say u Saddling our horses, we began the 

ascent." 

Exercise 156 

(1) Point out the participles in Exercise 16 and tell 
their grammatical use. 

(2) Point out the participles in the following sen- 
tences and tell their grammatical use: 

1. The lad ran trembling to him. 

2. I hear the cavalry approaching. 

3. The autumn came sighing, sobbing. 

4. Young Howard fell, mortally wounded. 

5. Night coming on, we retired to our lodging. 

6. Glancing around, I took in the whole situation. 

7. This done, we advanced, with our eyes fixed upon the hill. 

8. Intrenched in his own honesty, the king's gold could not buy 
him. 



VERBS 263 

9. So saying, he walked away, followed by Walter, leaving the 
others behind. 

10. Leaning over the cliff, I saw the guide conducting two adven- 
turers behind the falls. 

(3) Rewrite the following sentences, substituting par- 
ticiples or participial phrases for the italicized words: 

1. He slowly arose and began to speak. 

2. When the work was finished, he went away. 

3. Then they retired and left their baggage behind. 

4. When he threw off his disguise, he stood facing the king. 

5. Everything God has made helps to guard the man that trusts in 
his protection. 

(4) Tell whether or not the subject of the participle 
is clearly expressed in the following sentences: 

1. Settling the bills, we departed. 

2. The bills being settled, we departed. 

3. Settling the bills, our departure was taken. 

4. Not expecting him, he surprised us by his arrival. 

5. Not expecting him, we were surprised by his arrival. 

221. Use of the Participle in Forming Verb-Phrases. — 
The participle is used in forming verb-phrases as fol- 
lows: 

(1) The present active participle is combined with 
the auxiliary be to form the progressive tenses (197) ; as, 
am calling , was calling, shall be calling, etc. 

(2) The past participle is combined: 

a. With the auxiliary have to form the perfect tenses; 
as, have called, had called, shall have called. 

b. With the auxiliary be to form the passive voice; as, 
am called, was called, shall be called. 

It is a vulgarism to use done in connection with another partici- 
ple in forming a verb-phrase; as, He has done come. Say "He has 
already come," or simply "He has come." 



264 PARTS OF SPEECH 

Exekcise 157 

In Exercises 138 and 139, point out the verb-phrases 
containing a present active or past participle and tell 
how each such verb-phrase is formed. 

222. Principal Parts of a Verb. — Certain forms of a 
verb are known as its principal parts, because from these 
are derived all the other parts, or forms. 

The principal parts of a verb are: 

(1) The present tense in its simple form, from which 
are derived the present active indicative, subjunctive, 
imperative, infinitive, participle, and gerund. 

(2) The past tense in its simple form, from which are 
derived the past active indicative and subjunctive. 

(3) The past participle, from which are derived the 
perfect active tenses and all the passive forms. 

For a full list of the principal parts of verbs not forming the past 
tense and the past participle simply by adding ed to the present, see 
the Appendix. 

223. Misused and Corrupted Forms. — Sometimes the 
past tense and the past participle are confounded, the 
past participle being incorrectly used for the past tense 
or the past tense for the past participle; thus, 

Past Participle Used for Past Tense Used for 

Past Tense Past Participle 

I seen him here. (Say saw.) I have saw him. (Say seen.) 

The bell rung. (Say rang.) The bell has rang. (Say rung.) 

She taken it. (Say took.) She has took it. (Say taken.) 

They done well. (Say did.) He has went home. (Say gone.) 

He come yesterday. (Say came.) He had stole it. (Say stolen.) 

I swum across. (Say swam.) She had broke it. (Say broken.) 

Sometimes corrupt forms of the past tense or of the 
past participle are improperly used; for example, 



VERBS 



265 



Corrupt Form of 
Past Tense 

The wind Mowed. (Say blew.) 
We brung him. (Say brought.) 
They knowed it. (Say knew.) 
I seed him here. (Say saw.) 



Corrupt Form of 
Past Participle 

It was Mowed up. (Say Mown.) 
He was drug in. (Say dragged.) 
I have knowed it. (Say known.) 
They have busted. (Say burst.) 



The principal parts of the following verbs are espe- 
cially liable to be misused or corrupted. Only forms in 
good use are included in this list: 



Present 


Past 


Past Part. 


Present 


Past 


Past Part. 


attack 


attacked 


attacked 


know 


knew 


known 


beat 


beat 


beaten 


lay 


laid 


laid 


begin 


began 


begun 


lie 


lay 


lain 


blow 


blew 


blown 


(recline' 


) 




break 


broke 


broken 


plead 


pleaded 


pleaded 


bring 


brought 


brought 


prove 


proved 


proved 


burst 


burst 


burst 


ride 


rode 


ridden 


come 


came 


come 


ring 


rang 


rung 


dive 


dived 


dived 


rise 


rose 


risen 


do 


did 


done 


run 


ran 


run 


drag 


dragged 


dragged 


see 


saw 


seen 






{ drunk 
/ drunken 


set 


set 


set 


drink 


drank 


sit 


sat 


sat 


eat 


ate 


eaten 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


flee 


fled 


fled 


shine 


shone 


shone 


flow 


flowed 


flowed 


show 


showed 


shown 


% 


flew 


flown 


slay 


slew 


slain 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


speak 


spoke 


spoken 


give 


gave 


given 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


go 


went 


gone 


summon 


summoned summoned 


grow 


grew 


grown 


swim 


swam 


swum 


hang 


hanged 


hanged 


take 


took 


taken 


(execute) 






throw 


threw 


thrown 


hang 


hung 


hung 


wake 


woke 


waked 


(suspend' 


) 




write 


wrote 


written 



266 PARTS OF SPEECH 

Exercise 158 

(1) Form short sentences according to the models to 
illustrate the correct use of the principal parts of each 
of the foregoing verbs. 

Models: 

He begins. He began. He has begun. 

He beats. He beat. He has beaten. He was beaten. 

It bursts. It burst. It has burst. It was burst. 

(2) Choose between the two forms and give a reason 
for your choice: 

1. The enemy flew (fled). 12. She eat (ate) her supper. 

2. The bird flew (fled). 13. He has laid (lain) down. 

3. He was hung (hanged). 14. The lion attacked (attackted) 

4. They hung (hanged) up their the keeper. 

hats. 15. He plead (pleaded) in vain. 

5. There they sat (set). 16. They sung (sang) a hymn. 

6. He has hid (hidden). 17. His innocence was proved 

7. The sun shone (shined) (proven). 

brightly. 18. Who drawed (drew) this? 

8. It was stolen (stoled). 19. I was summoned (sum- 

9. We swum (swam) across. monsed). 

10. He has awoke (awaked). 20. He was badly bit (bitten). 

11. He give (gave) up all. 

224. Participial Adjectives.— The verbal force may 

fade out of a participle; thus, 

The day was charming. 
He is a well educated man. 
This is an interesting letter. 

The italicized words originally were participles, but 
here they are used merely to describe and may be com- 
pared; as, more charming, most charming. When the 
verbal force thus fades out of a participle, it becomes 
an ordinary adjective, and is known as a participial 
adjective. 



VERBS 267 

A few verbs have two forms of the past participle, 
one of which has an adjectival use. Examples are 
drunken, fraught, shrunken, sunken, and swollen; as, a 
drunken man, a sunken ship, a swollen stream. 

Sometimes the ending ed of a participial adjective is pronounced 
as an additional syllable; as, a learned man. 

Exercise 159 

(1) Point out the participial forms and tell whether 
they are used as participles or adjectives: 

1. He is very entertaining. 5. They are well prepared. 

2. He is entertaining them. 6. It was prepared by her. 

3. She is greatly mistaken. 7. She seems much grieved. 

4. He was mistaken for you. 8. Your work is well done. 

(2) Choose between the two forms and give a reason 
for your choice: 

1. My hand is swelled (swollen). 

2. We met a drunk (drunken) man. 

3. I have drunk (drunken) a cup of tea. 

4. The ship was sunk (sunken) by a torpedo. 

5. The sunk (sunken) ship has been raised at last. 

Gerund 

225. Gerund Defined. — A gerund is a form of the verb 
ending in ing and sharing in the nature of a verb and a 
noun (24); thus, 

I am tired of doing this. 
His saying so was very frank. 
, I have not heard of his having come. 

The gerund is sometimes called the infinitive in ing, also the 'par- 
ticipial infinitive, 



268 PARTS OF SPEECH 

226. Forms of the Gerund. — The gerund is both 
simple and phrasal in form. Note the following table: 

Active Passive 

Present: calling being called 

Past: having called having been called 

As here shown, the present gerund has the same 
form as the present participle; the past gerund, the 
same form as the phrasal past participle. 

Phrasal gerunds are formed by combining the gerund 
being or having with the past participle of the verb. 

Exercise 160 

Form the gerunds active and passive of the verbs 
sell, praise, do, and teach. 

227. Uses of the Gerund. — The gerund may have the 
following grammatical uses: 

(1) Subject; as, His coming today was unexpected. 

(2) Subjective complement; as, His only aim in life is 
doing good (the doing of good). 

(3) Direct object; as, I do not like your giving up. 

(4) Objective complement; as, I call it doing well. 

(5) With a preposition; as, We are fond of living here. 

(6) Adverbial objective (91, 5); as, It is worth doing 
well (worthy of doing well). 

Caution. — We should be careful not to confound the 
office of the gerund with that of the participle. Note 
the following examples: 

Gerund Participle 

His doing this surprised us. He, doing this, went away. 

His being an honest man is not He, being an honest man, has 

doubted. our confidence. 

We heard of his saying this. We heard him saying this. 



VERBS 269 

As here shown, the gerund is construed with the pos- 
sessive case, the participle with the nominative or 
objective. These two constructions are not necessarily 
equivalent or interchangeable. As a rule, only the ger- 
und construction is used after a preposition; as, I am 
surprised at your (not you) thinking so. 

Exercise 161 

(1) Point out the gerunds in Exercise 16 and tell 
their grammatical use. 

(2) Point out the gerunds in the following sentences 
and tell their grammatical use: 

1. We learn to do by doing. 

2. Your thinking so is not doubted. 

3. You may depend on our being there. 

4. We shall not forget his standing by us. 

5. We are very fond of living in the country. 

6. We appreciate your being willing to help us. 

7. What is worth doing at all is worth doing well. 

8. Would it be giving assistance to tell her this? 

9. Immediately after being examined we reported for duty. 
10. I call this taking an undue advantage of an absent man. 

(3) Choose between the two forms and give a reason 
for your choice: 

1. He caught us (our) napping. 

2. I met his (him) coming back. 

3. Please pardon me (my) being urgent. 

4. I do not understand you (your) acting so. 

5. What was the cause of Mary (Mary's) failing? 

6. There is no use of you (your) worrying about it. 

7. We overheard them (their) planning to surprise us. 

8. We heard about them (their) planning to surprise us. 

9. Quentin Roosevelt lost his life because poor eyesight prevented 
him (his) recognizing the enemy planes. 



270 PARTS OF SPEECH 

228. Verbal Nouns. — The verbal force may fade out 
of a gerund, as out of a participle; thus, 

Walking is good exercise. 

How does this man make a living. 

All of us enjoyed the beautiful singing. 

The italicized words originally were gerunds, but 
here they are used as the names of actions and take 
only adjectival modifiers. When the verbal force thus 
fades out of a gerund, it becomes an ordinary noun. 
As it is derived from a verb, it is known as a verbal 
noun. 

When a verbal noun is modified by the, it is followed 
by an qf-phrase rather than a direct object; thus, 

The writing of the letter. (Not the writing the letter.) 
The launching of the ship. (Not the launching the ship.) 

Exercise 162 

Supply of where it is needed and give a reason in 
each case: 

1. He enjoys solving problems. 

2. He enjoys the solving problems. 

3. Charles has in him the making a man. 

4. Painting a portrait requires much skill. 

5. The painting a portrait requires much skill. 

6. The author is now engaged in writing a new book. 

229. Conjugation. — The various forms of the verb, 
modal and non-modal, have been discussed. An orderly 
arrangement of these forms is called conjugation, a 
term meaning "a joining together." 

Conjugation is an orderly arrangement of the various 
forms of a verb. 



VERBS 



271 



When only one person and number form of a tense is 
given, then the arrangement is called a synopsis instead 
of a conjugation. 

For the conjugation of the verb be and a synopsis of 
the verb call, see the Appendix. 

Exercise 163 
(Review) 

(1) Choose between the two forms in each of the fol- 
lowing sentences and give a reason for your choice: 



1. We must lay (lie) still. 

2. He lay (laid) here long. 

3. She learned (taught) me to 

draw. 

4. Please set (sit) down. 



5. Please set (sit) it down. 

6. We set (sat) there all day. 

7. I do not remember (remem- 

ber of) seeing you there. 

8. I was unable to raise (rise). 



II 



1. Six gallons is (are) too much. 

2. This doesn't (don't) fit. 

3. She wasn't (weren't) con- 

sulted. 

4. He ain't (isn't) at home. 

5. By whom was (were) "Sesame 

and Lilies" written? 

6. Every door and window-blind 

was (were) closed. 



7. Not one of the boys is (are) 

ready. 

8. He and John is (are) gone. 

9. Neither James nor Henry is 

(are) here. 

10. Neither he nor I am able to 

(can) stay longer. 

11. Two dollars is (are) enough. 

12. This kind of books is (are) 

very popular. 



1. He said that time was 

too precious to waste. 

2. He said that he was (is) glad 

to see me. 



Ill 

(is) 3 



We came that we may (might) 
be of service to you. 
4. He promises that he will 
(would) be there. 



272 PARTS OF SPEECH 

IV 

1. He plead (pleaded) long. 7. It was throwed (thrown) out. 

2. I knew (knowed) it well. 8. Where has she gone (went)? 

3. She ran (run) very fast. 9. He taken (took) a seat by me. 

4. They done (did) it well. 10. I have eat (eaten) my dinner. 

5. She came (come) with me. 11. We are almost froze (frozen). 

6. The storm blowed (blew) the 12. Has she wrote (written) the 

tree down. letter yet? 

(2) Supply shall or will in each blank and give a rea- 
son for your choice: 

1. you be surprised? 5. I hope that you be 

2. Where we find him? here. 

3. I am resolved that he 6. We do just as we 

not desert us. have promised. 

4. I fear that we miss it. 

(3) Supply should or would in each blank and give a 
reason for your choice: 

1. She feared she fail. 5. What if you get left? 

2. I thought I melt. 6. He often speak of 

3. He asked if you help. home. 

4. She promised she come. 

(4) Explain the difference in the meaning of the two 
auxiliaries in each sentence: 

1. He shall (will) not stay. 3. You may (can) run faster. 

2. If he would (should) not go, 4. This might (could) never hap- 

what would you do? pen again. 

(5) Supply to where it is needed with the infinitive: 

1. They had me go along. 4. They dared us try this. 

2. They asked me go along. 5. I beg you not mention it. 

3. They dared not risk it. 6. She bade me go at once. 



VERBS 273 

(6) Choose between the two forms in each sentence 
and give a reason for your choice: 

1. We expected to have been (to 5. We want to better (better to) 

be) with you. understand it. 

2. I hoped to have seen (to see) 6. There is no use of your (you) 

you there. going so soon. 

3. I knew it to be him (he). 7. Pardon me (my) being late. 

4. I should not like to be him 8. The taking (taking of) the 

(he). city was not expected. 

230. Parsing of Verbs and Verbals. — To parse a verb 
we tell the following: 

(1) Class, whether transitive or intransitive, regular 
or irregular. 

(2) Principal parts. 

(3) Voice, if the verb denotes action. 

(4) Mood, or mood-idea of a modal verb-phrase. 

(5) Tense. 

(6) Person and number. 

(7) Grammatical use. 

An infinitive, participle, or gerund is parsed like a 
verb except that no mention is made of mood, person, 
and number, as these properties are lacking in verbals. 

Models for parsing verbs and verbals: 

Thou knowest not what a day may bring forth. 
The emperor seemed to be flattered by the remark. 

1. Knowest is a transitive verb, irregular; principal parts, know, 
knew, known; active voice, indicative mood, present tense, second 
person, singular number, in agreement with the subject Thou. 

2. May bring is a modal verb-phrase expressing possibility; com- 
posed of the auxiliary may and the infinitive bring; from the transi- 
tive irregular verb bring; principal parts, bring, brought, brought; 
active voice, present tense, third person, singular number, in agree- 
ment with the subject day. 



274 PARTS OF SPEECH 

3. Seemed is an intransitive verb, regular; principal parts, seem, 
seemed, seemed; indicative mood, past tense, third person, singular 
number, in agreement with the subject emperor. 

4. To be flattered is an infinitive, from the verb flatter; principal 
parts, flatter, flattered, flattered; passive voice, present tense, used as 
a subjective complement. * 

Exercise 164 

Parse the verbs and verbals in Exercise 73; also the 
verbs and verbals in the following sentences: 

1. Somehow we all forgot to be afraid. 

2. Now the rain came pouring in torrents. 

3. There's a divinity that shapes our ends. 

4. In coming out of church, we talked together. 

5. The wise man must be wise before, not after, the event. 

6. They that die for a good cause are redeemed from death. 

7. It is a great pity that we are not taught, in our early days, 
how to see. 

8. Providence has sent a few men into the world, ready booteol 
and spurred to ride, and millions ready saddled and bridled to be 
ridden. 

9. Words may often soothe and soften, 
Gild a joy and heal a pain. 

10. Dance to the beat of the rain, little Fern, 
And spread out your palms again, 

And say, "Tho' the sun 

Hath my venture spun, 
He had labored, alas, in vain, 

But for the shade 

That the Cloud hath made, 
And the gift of the Dew and the Rain." 



VERBS 275 

SUMMARY OF VERBS 

I. Kinds 

1. (a) Transitive (164, 165) 

(6) Intransitive (164-166): Complete, Linking 

2. Auxiliary, Notional, Principal (167) 

3. Regular, Irregular (185) 

II. Inflectional and Phrasal Forms 

1. Voice (170-174) 

a. Active (170) 

b. Passive (170-174) 

2. Mood (198-204, 211) 

a. Indicative (199-201, 211) 

b. Subjunctive (199, 202, 203, 211) 

c. Imperative (199, 204, 211) 

Modal Auxiliaries (205-211) 

Non-Modal Forms — Verbals (212-228) 

a. Infinitives (212-217) 

b. Participles (218-224) 

c. Gerunds (225-228) 

3. Tense (182-197): Emphatic Forms (196), Progressive 

Forms (197) 

a. Present (183, 184) 

b. Past (183, 185, 186) 

c. Future (183, 187, 188) 

Past Future (189) 

d. Present Perfect (183, 190, 191) 

e. Past Perfect (183, 192, 193) 

/. Future Perfect (183, 194, 195) 

4. Person and Number (176-181) 

III. Grammatical Uses 

1. Modal Forms: Predicate Verb (177) 

2. Non-Modal Forms (216, 220, 227) 



Chapter VI 



PREPOSITIONS 

231. List of Prepositions. — We have learned (18) that 
a preposition is a word placed before a substantive to 
show its relation to some other word in the sentence. 

Some prepositions consist of a phrase instead of a sin- 
gle word; as, by means of, out of, etc. 

The following is a list of prepositions consisting of a 
single word: 



aboard 




behind 


for 


since 


about 




below 


from 


through 


above 




beneath 


in 


throughout 


across 




beside, besides 


into 


to 


after 




between, betwixt 


notwith- 


touching 


against 




beyond 


standing 


toward, towards 


along 




but 


of 


under 


amid, amidst 


by 


off. 


underneath 


among, 


amongst 


concerning 


on 


until, till 


around, 


round 


despite 


over 


unto 


aslant 




down 


past 


up 


at 




during 


pending 


upon 


athwart 




ere 


regarding 


with 


barring 




except, 


respecting 


within 


before 




excepting 


save, saving 


without 



A few of the foregoing words — barring, concerning, excepting, 
pending, regarding, respecting, saving, and touching — were originally 
participles which have faded into prepositions. The same words are 
also used as participles. Note the following examples of the two 
uses: 

Preposition: Regarding (as to) the matter, you are wrong. 
Participle: Regarding me for a moment in silence, he then spoke. 

276 



PREPOSITIONS 



277 



The following is a list of phrasal prepositions: 



according to 
along with 
apart from 
as for 
as regards 
as to 

because of 
by means of 
by reason of 
by virtue of 



by way of 

for the sake of 

in accordance with 

in addition to 

in case of 

in compliance with 

in consequence of 

in front of 

in lieu of 

in opposition to 



in place of 

in preference to 

in regard to 

in spite of 

instead of 

on account of 

out of 

with reference to 

with regard to 

with respect to 



The use of onto as a single word is avoided by careful writers. 
We may use instead on, to, upon, or on to. 



Exercise 165 

Write sentences to illustrate the use of the following 
prepositions : 



along 


concerning 


toward 


by means of 


before 


during 


since 


in front of 


behind 


excepting 


until 


with respect to 



232. Substantives Used with Prepositions. — The follow- 
ing kinds of substantives may be used with prepositions : 

(1) Nouns; as, This came from France. 

(2) Pronouns; as, They sent for you. 

(3) Adjectives; as, He went from bad to worse. 

(4) Adverbs; as, We shall start from here. 

(5) Infinitives; as, No way remains but (except) to go. 

(6) Gerunds; as, After seeing him, I came back. 

(7) Phrases; as, Please wait until after dinner. 

(8) Clauses; as, We were amused at what he said. 

As we have learned, nouns and pronouns used with prepositions 
are in the objective case. 



278 PARTS OF SPEECH 

Exercise 166 

Point out and classify each substantive used with a 
preposition in the following sentences: 

1. The father came on deck. 

2. Not until then did I see him. 

3. She had not been well of late. 

4. They came from among the crowd. 

5. A miser grows rich by seeming poor. 

6. There was nothing to do but to wait. 

7. From what you say, I must be mistaken. 

8. From now on we shall look out for ourselves. 

9. A prize is offered to whoever writes the best story. 

10. Instead of mingling with his tribe, he sat apart, a solitary 
being in a multitude. 

233. Position of a Preposition. — A preposition usually 
precedes its substantive; but sometimes, especially in 
poetry, the substantive precedes (18); thus, 

From peak to peak, the rattling crags among, 
Leaps the live thunder. 

In easy and informal language, a preposition used 
with an interrogative or relative word is often placed at 
the end of the clause or sentence even in the best usage. 
Compare the following sentences: • 

Easy and Informal Order Formal and Dignified Order 

What were they looking atf At what were they looking? 

Whom did you just speak tot To whom did you just speak? 

Which one is he trying for? For which one is he trying? 

The work that he is engaged in The work in which he is engaged 
is ennobling. is ennobling. 

234. Prepositional Phrases. — A phrase consisting of a 
preposition and its substantive is called a prepositional 
phrase; as, Stand by your colors, men. 



PREPOSITIONS 279 

A prepositional phrase generally has the use of an 

adjective or an adverb, but may also have the use of a 

noun. Note these examples: 

He is a man of his word. (Adjectival phrase.) 
He spoke with a loud voice. (Adverbial phrase.) 
This came from over the sea.. (Substantive phrase.) 

Exercise 167 

(1) Point out the prepositional phrases in Exercises 33 
and 166 and tell the use of each. 

(2) Write two sentences containing adjectival prepo- 
sitional phrases, two containing adverbial, and two con- 
taining substantive. 

235. Omission of the Preposition. — After the words 
glad, sorry, sure, certain, resolved, and the like, a prepo- 
sition is expressed with a substantive word but is 
omitted with a substantive clause; thus, 

I am glad of this; I am glad that you are here. 

I feel sure of his coming; I feel sure that he will come. 
In certain constructions a preposition is often omitted in col- 
loquial language but is expressed in more exact and careful literary- 
language : as, There is no use staying (of staying) ; He lives this side 
the river (on this side of the river). 

On the other hand, a preposition may be used needlessly; as, 
Where is he at? Say "Where is he?" 

236. Prepositions Discriminated. — Note the distinc- 
tions as to the use of the following prepositions: 

(1) At, in. — At applies to towns or to cities spoken of as geo- 
graphical points, in to cities: as, He lives at Concord; The station is 
located at New York; He was born in Boston. 

(2) Beside, besides. — Beside means "by the side of," besides "in 
addition to": as, I stood beside the stream; There were five besides 
me. 



280 PARTS OF SPEECH 

(3) Between, among. — Between applies to two, among to more 
than two: as, Divide it between you two; Divide it among all the 
girls. • 

(4) Ere, save. — Ere and save belong to the language of poetry. 
In ordinary language we should use before and except (or but): as, 
He came before (not ere) noon; All were here but (not save) Henry. 

(5) From, to. — After different and differently we should use from, 
not to or than: as, He is different from (not to) his father; It hap- 
pened differently from (not than) what I had expected. 

(6) From, with. — After differ meaning "to be unlike" we should 
use from; as, Men differ from brutes. After differ meaning "to dis- 
agree" we may use either from or with; as, I differ from (or with) 
you on this question. 

(7) In, during. — In denotes a point of time; during, extent of 
time: as, He was born in June; We were away during August. 

(8) In, into. — In implies rest or sameness of place; into, motion 
or change of place: as, He is in the house; He ran into the house. 

(9) Of, with. — We should use of (or from) rather than with after 
certain expressions to denote cause; as, He died of (not with) fever. 

Exercise 168 

Choose between the two expressions and give a rea- 
son for your choice: 

1. Poe died at (in) Baltimore. 9. Hold on to (onto) the rope. 

2. I fell in (into) the river. 10. He died with (of) hunger. 

3. Where do you live (live at)? 11. Come ere (before) sunset. 

4. He was married during (in) 12. What is this for? (For what 

July. is this?) 

5. What is the use going (of 13. We spent the summer at (in) 

going) so soon? Colorado Springs. 

6. We live this side (on this side 14. A dispute arose among (be- 

of) the street. tween) the three boys. 

7. It turned out different to 15. I have ten dollars besides 

(from) what we had hoped. (beside) this. 

8. When it is noon here, what 16. All have returned save (ex- 

time is it at (in) Chicago? cept) Martha, 



PREPOSITIONS 281 

237. Prepositions Used as Adverbs. — Some prepositions 
were adverbs originally and may still be used as such: 
as, He came in; I ran off; Let us go on; They rose up. 

A preposition is retained as an essential part of a passive verb- 
phrase after its substantive has been made the subject of the phrase 
(174); as, We were sent for. 

A preposition is also retained as an essential part of an infinitive 
after the omission of its substantive; as, You have much to live for 
(for which you are to live). 

238. Parsing of Prepositions. — To parse a preposition 
we tell the following: 

(1) Use of the preposition. 

(2) Use of the prepositional phrase. 

Models: For some time Rip lay musing on this scene. 

1. For is a preposition introducing the adverbial prepositional 
phrase For some time and showing the relation between its substan- 
tive, the noun time, and the verb lay, the word modified by the 
phrase. 

2. On is a preposition introducing the adverbial prepositional 
phrase on this scene and showing the relation between its substan- 
tive, the noun scene, and the participle musing, the word modified 
by the phrase. 

Exercise 169 
Parse the prepositions in the following sentences: 

1. I opened my eyes at the peep of day. 

2. In his hands he held a harp of gold. 

3. She spoke at no time except with hope. 

4. A man shows what he is by what he does. 

5. Nothing is impossible to a valiant heart. 

6. We did the work according to the best of our ability. 

7. There is in the worst of fortune the best of chances for a 
happy change. 

8. It was a saying of his that education is an ornament in pros- 
perity and a refuge in adversity. 



Chapter VII 

CONJUNCTIONS 

239. Conjunctions and Prepositions Compared. — We 
have learned (19) that a conjunction is a word used to 
connect words or groups of words. 

Conjunctions, like prepositions, sometimes consist of 
a phrase instead of a single word; as, in order that, so 
that, in case that, provided that, inasmuch as, as if, as 
though, etc. 

Both prepositions and conjunctions are connectives, 
but they differ in the following respects: 

(1) A preposition connects a substantive in the rela- 
tion of an adjectival or adverbial modifier, with some 
other word; as, men of wisdom, good for all. A con- 
junction connects words or phrases of the same rank, or 
clauses of the same or different rank: as, men and 
women, of iron or of brass; He went but he soon came 
back; I will stay if you wish. 

(2) A preposition is followed by the objective case of 
a noun or pronoun; as, for me, from him. A conjunc- 
tion does not affect the case of words; as, he and /, for 
him and me. 

240. Classes of Conjunctions. — Conjunctions are of the 
following classes : 

(1) Coordinating conjunctions (56): as, William and 
Mary; for you or for me; I saw him but he did not see 
me. 

As here shown, coordinating conjunctions connect 
words, phrases, or coordinate clauses. They fall into 
the following groups: 

282 



CONJUNCTIONS 283 

a. Those implying addition: and, also, besides, likewise, moreover. 

b. Those implying opposition: but, however, nevertheless, notwith- 
standing, only, still, yet. 

c. Those implying choice between two: or, nor, else. 

d. Those denoting cause: for, hence, then, therefore. 

And, but, or, nor, and for are pure conjunctions. The others 
grouped with these are adopted from adverbs and generally retain 
something of their adverbial nature. 

(2) Subordinating conjunctions (55); as, I go because I 
am sent; I know that you are sincere. 

As here shown, subordinating conjunctions connect 
clauses of unequal rank. They fall into the following 
groups : 

a. Those denoting cause: because, as, since, seeing that, forasmuch 
as, inasmuch as. 

b. Those denoting condition: if, unless, in case that, provided that. 

c. Those denoting concession: although, though, albeit. 

d. Those denoting purpose: that, in order that, so that, lest. 

e. Those denoting comparison: than, as. 

f. Those expressing a substantive relation: that, whether, if. 

Exercise 170 

(1) Write sentences to illustrate the use of the follow- 
ing coordinating conjunctions as directed: 

a. And connecting (1) words, (2) phrases, (3) clauses. 

b. But connecting (1) words, (2) phrases, (3) clauses. 

c. Or connecting (1) words, (2) phrases, (3) clauses. 

d. For connecting clauses. 

(2) Write sentences to illustrate the use of the follow- 
ing subordinating conjunctions and tell what clauses are 
connected by each: 



since 


if 


lest 


than 


as 


unless 


though 


in order that 


that 


whether 



284 PARTS OF SPEECH 

241. Correlative Conjunctions. — Both coordinating and 
subordinating conjunctions may stand in pairs, each 
member of a pair answering to the other member; thus, 

Give me neither poverty nor riches. 

Neither implies that nor is to follow and in this way 
helps to connect poverty and riches. Conjunctions thus 
used in pairs are called correlative ("mutually relating") 
conjunctions. 

The principal correlative conjunctions are: 

Coordinating: both . . . and, not only . . . but (or 
but also), either . . . or, neither . . . nor. 

Subordinating: although (or though) . . . yet (or still), 
if . . . then. 

The first member of a correlative conjunction is liable to be mis- 
placed. Note these examples: 

Incorrectly Placed Correctly Placed 

He not only gave food but also He gave not only food but also 

clothing. clothing. 

Either you must go or send. You must either go or send. 

I neither have time nor energy I have neither time nor energy 

to waste. to waste. 

As here shown, the members of a correlative conjunction should 
be followed by the same part of speech, or by corresponding parts 
of the sentence. 

Exeecise 171 

(1) Point out the correlative conjunctions in the fol- 
lowing sentences and tell what they connect: 

1. The work goes on both day and night. 

2. He would neither go himself nor allow us to go. 

3. If any of the high contracting parties breaks or disregards its 
covenants, then we must fly to arms. 

4. The country needs not only coin but also conscience. 



CONJUNCTIONS 285 

5. Though the mills of God grind slowly, yet they grind exceed- 
ing small. 

6. Our lives are often spent either in doing nothing at all or in 
doing nothing to the purpose. 

(2) Choose between the two arrangements and give a 
reason for your choice: 

1. (a) It was not only wet but cold, (b) It not only was wet 
but cold. 

2. (a) They neither had silver nor gold, (b) They had neither 
silver nor gold. 

3. (a) Much may either be used as an adjective or an adverb. 
(6) Much may be used as either an adjective or an adverb. 

242. Words Used as Conjunctions. — The following 
parts of speech are used with the force of subordinating 
conjunctions: 

(1) Interrogative pronouns introducing indirect ques- 
tions (123): as, I know who he is; Tell us what you did. 

(2) Relative pronouns (124): as, It was he who told 
me; This is the book that I want. 

(3) Interrogative adverbs introducing indirect ques- 
tions (154, 1): as, I know where he is; Tell how it was. 

(4) Relative adverbs (154, 2): as, They were here 
when I came; Please wait until I come back. 

Like and directly should not be used as subordinating conjunc- 
tions; as, 

You look like you were pleased. (Say "as if.") 

I saw my mistake directly I made it. (Say "as soon as.") 

It is better not to use except or without in the sense of unless; as, 

We can do nothing except you help. (Say "unless.") 
He seldom writes without he mentions you. (Say "without men- 
tioning you," or "unless he mentions you.") 

But what should not be used for but that or that; as, I do not 
doubt but what he will be there. (Say "but that," or simply "that.") 



286 PARTS OF SPEECH 

Exercise 172 

(1) Point out the words introducing subordinate 
clauses in Exercise 37 and classify each. 

(2) Choose between the two forms in each of the fol- 
lowing sentences and give a reason for your choice: 

1. You look like (as if) you were excited. 

2. As soon as (directly) I arose, I felt at ease. 

3. What can a man do except (unless) God be with him? 

4. I do not doubt but what (but that) it will turn out well. 

5. He never goes home without he takes (taking) his mother 
some token of his affection. 

243. Parsing of Conjunctions.— To parse a conjunction 
we tell the following: 

(1) Class. 

(2) What it connects. 

Models: One doing will not suffice, 

Though doing be not in vain; 
And a blessing failing us once or twice 
May come if we try again. 

1. Though is a subordinating conjunction denoting concession. It 
connects the adverbial clause Though doing be not in vain with the 
principal clause One doing will not suffice. 

2. And is a coordinating conjunction implying addition. It con- 
nects the two main parts of the sentence. 

3. Or is a coordinating conjunction implying choice. It connects 
the adverbs once and twice. 

4. If is a subordinating conjunction denoting condition. It con- 
nects the adverbial clause if we try again with the principal clause a 
blessing failing us once or twice may come. 

Exercise 173 
Parse the conjunctions in Exercise 50. 



Chapter VIII 

INTERJECTIONS 

244. Uses of Interjections. — We have learned (20) that 
an interjection is a word used to express strong or 
sudden feeling. 

With the possible exception of such expressions as 
"Oh for a chance !" "Alas for him!" interjections do 
not enter into construction with other words but are 
grammatically independent. Yet they are employed 
along with other words in the expression of thought and 
emotion, and in that sense are parts of speech. 

Interjections are used as follows: 

(1) To express feeling — joy, surprise, pain, sorrow, 
disappointment, disgust, or the like; as, oh, ah, ha, aha, 
hurrah, huzzah, hallelujah, alas, alack, heigh-ho, pshaw, 
pooh, bah, ugh, tut. 

The same interjection may express different feelings; as, Oh, how 
sudden (surprise)! Oh, how glad I am (joy)! Oh, how it hurts 
(pain) ! 

(2) To attract attention, direct, or silence; as, ho, lo, 
hello, hallo, hollo, halloo, whoa, gee, haw, shoo, hist, 'st. 

(3) In imitation of a sound; as, bow-wow, tu-whit, 
tu-whoo, ding-dong. 

(4) In the place of a question; as, ahf eh? hehf 

Exercise 174 

(1) Point out again the interjections in Exercise 14 
and tell how each one is used. 

287 



288 PARTS OF SPEECH 

(2) Write sentences to illustrate the use of the follow- 
ing interjections: 

ah hurrah pshaw lo hallo 

aha hallelujah pooh ho hist 

245. Words Used as Interjections. — The following parts 
of speech are sometimes used with the force of interjec- 
tions : 

(1) Nouns; as, mercy! heavens! goodness! 

(2) Pronouns; as, oh my! dear me! what! 

(3) Adjectives; as, good! great! wonderful! 

(4) Verbs; as, see! hark! listen! halt! 

(5) Adverbs; as, why! well! indeed! never! 

Caution. — We should guard against an over use of 
exclamations. Such expressions are helpful in adding to 
the life and force of language*, but, if used extrava- 
gantly, indicate a lack of good taste or self-control. 

Exercise 175 

(1) Point out the words used as interjections in 
Exercise 27 and classify each. 

(2) Write sentences to illustrate the use of a noun, a 
pronoun, an adjective, a verb, and an adverb as inter- 
jections. 



APPENDIX 



LIST OF VERBS 

The following list of verbs includes such forms as are approved 
by good prose usage. For rare, archaic, or poetical forms a stand- 
ard dictionary should be consulted. Verbs not included in this list 
usually form their past tense and past participle simply by adding 
ed. 



Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


abide 


abode 


abode 


am 


was 


been 


arise 


arose 


arisen 


awake 


awoke, awaked 


awaked 


bear 


bore 


borne, born (given birth to) 


beat 


beat 


beaten 


beget 


begot 


begotten 


begin 


began 


begun 


behold 


beheld 


beheld 


bend 


bent 


bent 


bereave 


bereft, bereaved 


bereft, bereaved 


beseech 


besought 


besought 


bet 


bet 


bet 


bid 


bade, bid 


bidden, bid 1 


bind 


bound 


bound 


bite 


bit 


bitten 


bleed 


bled 


bled 


bless 


blessed, blest 


blessed, blest 


blow 


blew 


blown 


break 


broke 


broken 


breed 


bred 


bred 


bring 


brought 


brought 


build 


built 


built 


burn 


burned, burnt 


burned, burnt 


burst 


burst 


burst 



1 The forms bade and bidden do not refer to an offer of money. 

289 



290 


APPENDIX 


Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


buy 


bought 


bought 


cast 


cast 


cast 


catch 


caught 


caught 


chide 


chid 


chidden 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


cleave (split) 1 


cleft, clove 


cleft, cleaved, cloven (adj.) 


cling 


clung 


clung 


come 


came 


come 


cost 


cost 


cost 


creep 


crept 


crept 


cut 


cut 


cut 


deal 


dealt 


dealt 


dig 


dug 


dug 


do 


did 


done 


draw 


drew 


drawn 


dream 


dreamed, dreamt 


dreamed, dreamt 


dress 


dressed, drest 


dressed, drest 


drink 


drank 


drunk, drunken (adj.) 


drive 


drove 


driven 


dwell 


dwelt 


dwelt 


eat 


ate 


eaten 


fall 


fell 


fallen 


feed 


fed 


fed 


feel 


felt 


felt 


fight 


fought 


fought 


find 


found 


found 


flee 


fled 


fled 


fling 


flung 


flung 


fly 


flew 


flown 


forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


forget 


forgot 


forgotten 


forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


get 


got 


got, gotten 


gird 


girded, girt 


girded, girt 



Cleave meaning "to adhere" is regular. 



LIST OF VERBS 



291 



Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


give 


gave 


given 


go 


went 


gone 


grind 


ground 


ground 


grow 


grew 


grown 


hang (suspend) 1 


hung 


hung 


have 


had 


had 


hear 


heard 


heard 


heave 


hove, 2 heaved 


heaved 


hew 


hewed 


hewn 


hide 


hid 


hidden 


hit 


hit 


hit 


hold 


held 


held 


hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


keep 


kept 


kept 


kneel 


knelt, kneeled 


knelt, kneeled 


knit 


knit, knitted 


knit, knitted 


know 


knew 


known 


lay- 


laid 


laid 


lead 


led 


led 


learn 


learned, learnt 


learned, learnt 


leave 


left 


left 


lend 


lent 


lent 


let 


let 


let 


lie (recline) 3 


lay 


lain 


light 


lighted, lit 


lighted, lit 


lose 


lost 


lost 


make 


made 


made 


mean 


meant 


meant 


meet 


met 


met 


pay 


paid 


paid 


pen (shut up) 


penned, pent 


penned, pent 


put 


put 


put 


quit 


quit, quitted 


quit, quitted 



1 Hang meaning "to put to death" is regular. 

2 Hove is employed in nautical language. 

3 Lie meaning "to speak falsely" is regular. 



292 


APPENDIX 




Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


read 


read 


read 


rend 


rent 


rent 


rid 


rid 


rid 


ride 


rode 


ridden 


ring 


rang 


rung 


rise 


rose 


risen 


run 


ran 


run 


say- 


said 


said 


see 


saw 


seen 


seek 


sought 


sought 


sell 


sold 


sold 


send 


sent 


sent 


set 


set 


set 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


shave 


shaved 


shaved, shaven (adj.) 


shed 


shed 


shed 


shine 


shone 


shone 


shoe 


shod 


shod 


shoot 


shot 


shot 


show 


showed 


shown 


shred 


shred, shredded 


shred, shredded 


shrink 


shrank 


shrunk, shrunken (adj.) 


shrive 


shrove, shrived 


shriven, shrived 


shut 


shut 


shut 


sing 


sang 


sung 


sink 


sank 


sunk, sunken (adj.) 


sit 


sat 


sat 


slay 


slew 


slain 


sleep 


slept 


slept 


slide 


slid 


slid, slidden 


sling 


slung 


slung 


slink 


slunk 


slunk 


slit 


slit 


slit 


smell 


smelled, smelt 


smelled, smelt 


smite 


smote 


smitten 


sow 


sowed 


sowed, sown 



LIST OF VERBS 



293 



Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


speak 


spoke 


spoken 


speed 


sped 


sped 


spell 


spelled, spelt 


spelled, spelt 


spend 


spent 


spent 


spill 


spilled, spilt 


spilled, spilt 


spin 


spun 


spun 


spit 


spit 


spit 


split 


split 


split 


spoil 


spoiled, spoilt 


spoiled, spoilt 


spread 


spread 


spread 


spring 


sprang 


sprung 


stand 


stood 


stood 


stave 


stove, staved 


stove, staved 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


stick 


stuck 


stuck 


sting 


stung 


stung 


stink 


stunk 


stunk 


strew 


strewed 


strewn, strewed 


stride 


strode 


stridden 


strike 


struck 


struck, stricken (adj.) 


string 


strung 


strung 


strive 


strove 


striven 


swear 


swore 


sworn 


sweat 


sweat, sweated 


sweat, sweated 


sweep 


swept 


swept 


swell 


swelled 


swelled, swollen 


swim 


swam 


swum 


swing 


swung 


swung 


take 


took 


taken 


teach 


taught 


taught 


tear 


tore 


torn 


tell 


told 


told 


think 


thought 


thought 


thrive 


throve, thrived 


thriven, thrived 


throw 


threw 


. thrown 


thrust 


thrust 


thrust 



294 


APPENDIX 




Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


tread 


trod 


trodden, trod 


wake 


woke, waked 


woke, waked 


wear 


wore 


worn 


weave 


wove 


woven 


weep 


wept 


wept 


wet 


wet 


wet 


win 


won 


won 


wind 


wound 


wound 


wring 


wrung 


wrung 


write 


wrote 1 


written 




CONJUGATION OF 


BE 




Indicative Mood 






Present Tense 




Singular 




Plural 


1. I am 




we are 


2. you are (thou art) 


you are 


3. he is 


Past Tense 


they are 


1. I was 




we were 


2. you were (thou 


wast, wert) 


you were 


3. he was 


Future Tense 


they were 


1. I shall be 




we shall be 


2. you will be (thou wilt be) 


you will be 


3. he will be 


Present Perfect Tense 


they will be 


1. I have been 




we have been 


2. you have been (thou hast been) 


you have been 


3. he has been 


Past Perfect Tense 


they have been 


1. I had been 




we had been 


2. you had been (thou hadst been) 


you had been 


3. he had been 




they had been 



CONJUGATION OF BE 



295 



Future Perfect Tense 

Singular 

1. I shall have been 

2. you will have been (thou wilt have been) 

3. he will have been 



Plural 

we shall have been 
you will have been 
they will have been 



Subjunctive Mood 

(Often preceded by if, unless, though, etc.) 
Present Tense 



Singular 


Plural 


1. I be 


we be 


2. you be (thou be) 


you be 


3. he be 


they be 


Past Tense 




1. I were 


we were 


2. you were (thou wert, .were) 


you were 


3. he were 


they were 


Present Perfect Tense 




1. I have been 


we have been 


2. you have been (thou have been) 


you have been 


3. he have been 


they have been 


Past Perfect Tense 




1. I had been 


we had been 


2. you had been (thou had been) 


you had been 


3. he had been 


they had been 


Imperative Mood 




Present Tense 




2. Be (you, thou) 


Be (you, ye) 


Infinitives Participles 


Gerunds 


Present: (to) be being 


being 


Past: (to) have been been 


having been 


Phrasal Past: having been 



296 APPENDIX 

SYNOPSIS OF THE VERB CALL 

Active Voice 

Indicative Mood 

Present Tense : he calls 

Past Tense: he called 

Future Tense : he will call 

Present Perfect Tense: he has called 

Past Perfect Tense: he had called 

Future Perfect Tense: he will have called 

Subjunctive Mood 

(Often preceded by if, unless, though, etc.) 
Present Tense: he call 

Past Tense: he called 

Present Perfect Tense: he have called 

Past Perfect Tense: he had called 

Imperative Mood 
Present Tense: call (thou, you) 

Infinitives Participles Gerunds 

Present: (to) call calling calling 

Past: (to) have called called having called 

Phrasal Past: having called 

Active Voice: Emphatic Forms 

■ 

Indicative Mood 

Present Tense: he does call 

Past Tense: he did call 

Subjunctive Mood 
(Often preceded by if, unless, though, etc.) 
Present Tense: he do call 

Past Tense: he did call 

Imperative Mood 
Present Tense: do (thou, you) call 



CONJUGATION OF CALL 297 

Active Voice: Progressive Forms 

Indicative Mood 

Present Tense: he is calling 

Past Tense: he was calling 

Future Tense: he will be calling 

Pres. Perf. Tense: he has been calling 

Past Perf. Tense: he had been calling 

Future Perf. Tense: he will have been calling 

Subjunctive Mood 

(Often preceded by if, unless, though, etc.) 

Present Tense: he be calling 

Past Tense: he were calling 

Pres. Perf. Tense: he have been calling 

Past Perf. Tense: he had been calling 

Imperative Mood 

Present Tense : be (thou, you) calling 
Infinitives Participle Gerund 
Present: (to) be calling 



Past: (to) have been call- having been call- 
ing ing 
Phrasal Past: , having been call- 
ing 

Passive Voice 

Indicative Mood 

Present Tense: he is called 

Past Tense: he was called 

Future Tense: he will be called 

Pres. Perf. Tense: he has been called 

Past Perf. Tense: he had been called 

Future Perf. Tense: he will have been called 



298 APPENDIX 

Subjunctive Mood 
(Often preceded by if, unless, though, etc.) 
Present Tense: he be called 

Past Tense: he were called 

Pres. Perf. Tense: he have been called 

Past Perf. Tense: he had been called 

Imperative Mood 
Present Tense: be (thou, you) called 

Infinitives Participles Gerund 

Present: (to) be called being called being called 

Past : (to) have been called called having been called 

Phrasal Past: having been called 

Passive Voice: Progressive Forms 

Indicative Mood 
Present Tense: he is being called 

Past Tense: he was being called 

Subjunctive Mood 

(Often preceded by if, unless, though, etc.) 

Past Tense: he were being called 

Modal Verb-Phrases 

Active Voice 
Present Tense: he may (can, must, ought to) call 

Past Tense: he might (could) call 

Pres. Perf. Tense: he may (can, must, ought to) have called 
Past Perf. Tense: he might (could) have called 

Passive Voice 
Present Tense: he may (can, must, ought to) be called 

Past Tense: he might (could) be called 

Pres. Perf. Tense: he may (can, must, ought to) have been called 
Past Perf. Tense: he might (could) have been called 



INDEX 

(The numbers refer to pages.) 



A, preposition 177 

A or an, indefinite article 175 

uses of 175-177 

Absolute, nominative 116 

phrase 262 

Accusative case 115n 

Accusative-dative case 115n 

Abstract nouns, defined 96 

Active voice, defined 207 

how changed to passive 208 

Additive relative clauses. .158, 160 

Address, words of 49 

nominative of 116 

Adherent relation of adjective.. 186 

Adjectival modifiers 41 

phrases 59, 277, 279 

clauses 69, 70, 187 

Adjectives, defined 13, 14 

used substantively 126 

kinds of ' 174 

comparison, of 180-184 

not compared 184 

relations of 186 

words used as 187 

used as other parts of 

speech. .187, 188, 198, 199, 288 

parsing of 189 

summary of 190 

adjective or adverb, which? . . 198 

Adjunct accusative 38n 

Adverbial modifiers 41 

phrases 61, 277, 279 

clauses 71, 72 

Adverbial objective.. 117, 118, 268 

Adverbs, defined 17 

used substantively 126 



Adverbs, used as adjectives. .. 187 

kinds of 191-193 

comparison of 194 

uses of 195, 196 

position of 196 

needless use of 197 

double negative 197 

adjective or adverb, which?. . 198 
words used as adverbs. .198, 199 

parsing of . . 200 

summary of 201 

used as interjections 288 

A few 166, 179 

A great many 179 

Ago 230 

Agreement of pronoun with 

antecedent 167, 168 

of verb with subject 213, 214 

All 166, 178 

Among, between ' 280 

Analysis of sentences 85-89 

Antecedent defined 133 

agreement of pronoun with 

....167, 168 

Anticipation 240, 251 

Anybody else's, anybody's else. .121 

Apostrophe, in forming plural . . 106 

in forming possessive 119-121, 166 

not used 147 

Appositive modifier 44, 45 

introduced by as, etc 44 

punctuation of 45 

case of 125 

intensive pronouns used as . .149 

adjectives used as 186 

Appositive relation of adjective 186 



299 



300 



INDEX 



Appositive relation of participles 261 

Aren't, isn't, ain't 214 

Articles, definite 175, 176 

indefinite 175, 176 

As, relative pronoun 130 

Ask, with secondary object. . .203 

At, in 279 

Auxiliary verbs 205, 206 

Be, passive auxiliary 208, 263 

perfect auxiliary 228, 229 

progressive auxiliary 233 

subjunctive and imperative 

form 236 

conjugation of 294, 295 

Beside, besides 279 

Between, among . 280 

Both. ..and 284 

But, relative 130 

But what 285 

Call, conjugation of 296-298 

Can 212, 249, 250 

Cardinal numerals 179, 180 

Case, defined 114, 115 

three cases. 114, 115 

forms 115 

uses of nominative 115, 116 

uses of objective 117, 118 

formation of possessive. .119-121 

uses of possessive 122-124 

of appositives 125 

of personal pronouns 143-147 

of interrogative pronouns 152,153 

of relative pronouns 159-164 

Causative verbs 203 

Clauses, defined 64-66 

substantive 66, 67, 126, 192 

adjectival 69, 70, 187, 192 

adverbial 71, 72, 199 

principal 74 



Clauses, subordinate 75 

coordinate. 76, 77 

essential 77, 78 

non-essential 77, 78 

elliptical 83 

relative 157, 158 

Cleft, or split, infinitive 255 

Cognate object 203 

Collective nouns.. 95, 96, 168, 213 

Common case-form 115 

gender-form 103 

Common nouns 93-95 

Comparative degree 181 

Comparative pronouns 165 

Comparison, of adjectives. . 180-185 

degrees of 181 

two methods of 182 

irregular 183 

adjectives not compared. . . . 184 
use of comparative and 

superlative 185 

of adverbs 194 

Complement, defined 32 

distinguished from adverb 32, 33 

subjective 33-35 

objective .38, 39 

Complete subject 29 

predicate 30 

verbs 32, 204 

Complex sentence, defined .... 81 

compound-complex 81 

analysis of 88, 89 

Compound adverbs 193 

nouns 97, 107 

personal pronouns. .... .147-149 

relative pronouns 163, 164 

Compound sentence, denned 80, 81 

analysis of 87 

Compound subject, defined 7 

verb with 215, 216 

Conditions, contrary to fact 240, 253 



INDEX 



301 



Conditions, neutral 252 

less vivid future 253 

Conditional sentences .... 252, 253 

Conjugation, denned .270 

of be 294, 295 

of call 296-298 

Conjunctions, defined 20, 21 

compared with prepositions . . 282 

coordinating 282, 283 

subordinating 283 

correlative 284 

words used as 285 

parsing of 286 

Conjunctive adverbs 192 

Contractions 214 

Coordinate clauses 76, 77 

Coordinating conjunctions 282, 283 

Copulative verb 34 

Could 250 

Couple 180 

Dative case 115, 115n 

Declarative sentences 3 

Declension 125 

Definite article 175, 176 

Demonstrative pronouns. . 150, 151 

adjectives 178 

Derivative adverbs .193 

Descriptive relative clause. . . 158n 

adjectives 174 

Determinative relative clause. . 158n 

Diagram, analysis by 85 

Differ from, with 280 

Different, differently from 280 

Direct object, defined 35, 36 

distinguished from subjec- - 
tive complement 36 

case of 117 

Direct questions 154, 155 

■Directly 285 

Distributive pronouns 165 



Distributive adjectives 178 

Do, did 232 

Doesn't, donH 214 

Double negative 197 

During, in 280 

Each 166, 178, 215, 216 

Each other 166 

Editorial and regal use of we. .137 

Either 166, 178 

Either... or ...215, 284 

Elliptical clauses 83 

sentences 83 

Emphatic tense-forms 232 

Ere, save 280 

Essential clauses 77, 78 

relative clauses 157 

Every with compound subject. .215 

Everybody, one, -thing 165, 166 

Except 285 

Exclamation, nominative of . . . 116 

Exclamations 50, 287 

Exclamatory sentences 5 

Expletive, there 9, 196 

it 142 

Fall, fell 203 

Farther, further 183 

Feminine gender, defined 101 

how distinguished from mas- 
culine 101-103 

of pronouns 140 

Few 166, 178 

Forward-moving relative 

clause 158n 

Free relative clause 158n 

Future perfect tense, defined . . 219 

formation of 231 

use of 231 

Future tense, defined 219 

formation of 224 



302 



INDEX 



Future tense, other future 

forms 225 

past future tense 226, 248 

Gender, denned 100, 101 

of nouns 100-103 

ways of distinguishing. . .101-103 
of personal pronouns. . . .138-142 

Genitive case 115n 

Gerunds, denned 26, 267 

forms of 268 

uses of 268 

verbal nouns 270 

Going to 225 

Grammatical subject 142 

Had better, rather, etc 240 

Hasn't, haven't. . 214 

Have, perfect auxiliary . . . 228, 229 

He, declined 136 

gender of 138, 139 

referring to either sex.. . 139, 167 

uses of 144 

Her, form of 136 

possessive adjective. . . .136, 146 

gender of 138, 140 

use of 145 

Herself 148 

Hers, case of 136 

possessive pronoun 136n 

gender of 138, 140 

use of 146 

Him, case of 136 

gender of 138, 139 

use of 144 

Himself 148 

His, case of 136 

possess ive adjective 

1 136, 136n, 146, 178n 

possessive pronoun 136n, 146 

gender of 138, 139 



His or her 168 

Historical present 220 

/, declined 135 

uses of 144 

Ideal certainty. 240, 251 

Imperative mood, defined 235 

forms of 236, 237 

uses of 243 

in conditional sentences 253 

Imperative sentences 4 

Impersonal object 141 

subject 141 

In, at 279 

In, during 280 

In, into 280 

Indefinite adjectives 178 

Indefinite pronouns, defined. . . 165 

kinds of 165 

inflection of 166 

discriminated 166 

personal pronouns used as . .167 
Indefinite relative pronouns. . . 163 

Independent elements 49-52 

words of address . . . . 49 

exclamations 49 

parenthetical expressions. ... 51 

pleonasm 52 

Indicative mood, defined 235 

forms of 236-237 

uses of 238 

in conditional sentences 252, 253 

Indirect object, defined 46 

verbs used after 46 

distinguished from objective 

complement 46 

case of 117 

Indirect questions. . .154, 155, 192 

Infinitive clause 259 

Infinitive, defined 25, 254 

uses of 126, 187, 257 



INDEX 



303 



Infinitive, without to 255 

forms of 255 

tenses of 256 

Inflection, defined 27 

of nouns : . . 100 

of personal pronouns. . . 135, 136 
of demonstrative pronouns . . 150 
of interrogative pronouns . . . 152 
of relative pronouns. . . . 159, 164 

of indefinite pronouns 166 

of adjectives 180-182 

of adverbs 194 

of verbs 206, 211 

Intensive pronouns 149 

adjectives 179 

Interjections, defined 23 

punctuation of 23 

exclamations 50 

uses of 287 

words used as 288 

Interrogative adjectives 178 

adverbs 192, 285 

Interrogative pronouns, defined 151 

inflection of 152 

number of 152 

uses of 152, 153 

in questions 154, 155 

Interrogative sentences, defined 4 

order of 9 

verb-phrases in 232 

In, into 280 

Intransitive verbs, defined 202 

used transitively 203 

in passive voice .209 

Irregular comparison 183 

Irregular verbs, defined .221 

incorrect forms of 221 

Is come, has come 228 

Isn't, aren't 214 

It, declined 136 

gender of 138 



It, use of 141 

special uses of 141, 142 

Its, case of 136 

possessive adjectives 136n 

gender of 138, 141 

use of 146 

It's (it is), its 147 

Itself 148 

Inverted order 9 

Joint possession 124 

Lesser 183 

Lie, lay 203 

Like 285 

Limiting adjectives 174 

Linking verbs 34, 204 

List of prepositions 276, 277 

of verbs 289-294 

-ly, adverbial ending.. . .193, 193n 

Many 165, 178 

Many a with compound subject 215 

Masculine gender, defined 101 

how distinguished from 

feminine. 101-103 

of pronoun/ 138, 139 

May 212, 249, 250 

Me, case of 135 

use of 144 

Might 250 

Mine, case of 135 

possessive pronoun 136n 

use of ...146, 147 

Misrelated participle 262 

Modal auxiliaries 243 

Modifiers, defined 13, 41 

adjectival 41 

adverbial 41 

possessive 43 



304 



INDEX 



Modifiers, appositive 44 

indirect object 46 

phrases as 59, 187, 199, 278 

clauses as. .69, 71, 187, 192, 199 

Mood, defined 234, 235 

indicative 235-238, 252-253 

subjunctive 235-242, 251-253 

imperative.. . . .235-237, 243, 253 
in conditional sentences 252, 253 

Mood-ideas expressed by 

shall and will 243-246 

should and would 247-248 

may and can 249, 250 

must and ought 250 

subjunctive ideas expressed 
by auxiliaries 251 

Must 212, 250 

My, case of 135 

possessive adjective, 136, 136n, 178n 
use of 146, 147 

Myself 148 



Natural likelihood 250 

Natural order 8-9 

Negative, double 197 

Negative sentences, verb- 
phrases in 232 

Neither. 165, 178 

Neither . . . nor connecting com- 
pound subject 215 

correlative conjunction ...... 284 

Neuter gender, defined 101 

of pronouns 138, 141-142 

New verbs 221 

No, responsive 191 

with compound subject 215 

Nobody 165, 166 

Nominative absolute 116, 262 

Nominative case, defined 115 

uses of. .115, 144, 153, 160, 164 



Nominative of address 116 

Nominative of exclamation. ... 116 

None, nothing 165, 166 

Non-essential clauses 77, 78 

Nor connecting compound 

subject 215 

Notional verbs 205, 206 

Not only . . . but (also) 284 

Nouns, defined 11 

proper 93 

common 93 

common used as proper 94 

collective 95 

abstract 96 

compound 97 

phrasal 97-99 

inflection of 100 

gender of 100-103 

number of 104-113 

case of 114-125 

declension of 125 

words used as 126 

parsing of ... . 129 

summary of 132 

used as adjectives 187 

used as adverbs 198 

person of 215, 216 

verbal 270 

used as interjections 288 

Numeral adjectives 179, 180 

Number, defined 104 

formation of plurals .... 105-109 
same form in both numbers . . 109 

nouns usually singular 110 

nouns always plural 110 

divided usage Ill 

of personal pronouns 136 

of interrogative pronouns . . . 152 

of relative pronouns 159 

of indefinite pronouns 166 

of verbs 211-213 



INDEX 



305 



Object, direct 35, 36 

indirect 46, 117 

cognate 203 

secondary 203 

retained 209 

Objective, adverbial 117 

Objective case, denned 115 

uses of 117 

of personal pronouns 144 

of interrogative pronouns. . . 153 

of relative pronouns 160 

Objective complement, denned. . 38 

verbs used after 38 

case of 117 

Obligation or propriety 

240, 248, 250 

.0/ any, of all 185 

0/-phrase 122, 122n, 123 

Of, with : 280 

Old verbs 221 

Omission of subject 6, 30 

of verb 30 

of words 83 

One 165, 166 

One another 166 

Only, position of 196 

Or connecting compound sub- 
ject 215 

Order, of subject and predicate 8, 9 

natural 8, 9 

inverted 9 

of compound subject 216v 

Ordinal numerals 179, 180 

Other 166, 178 

Ought 212, 250 

Our, case of 135 

possessive adjective. . .136, 136n 

use of 146 

Ours, case of 135 

possessive pronoun 136, 136n 

use of . . . 146 



Ourself 148 

Ourselves 148 

Own used for emphasis 148 

Parenthetical expressions 51 

Parsing, defined 129 

of nouns 129 

of pronouns 171 

of adjectives 189 

of adverbs 200 

of verbs 273 

of verbals 273 

of prepositions 281 

of conjunctions 286 

Participial adjectives 266 

Participles, defined .26, 260 

forms of 260 

uses of 261 

use in forming verb-phrases . . 263 
misused and corrupted forms 264 

Parts of speech, defined 11 

distinguished 1 1-23 

same word as different 23 

-vords sharing in the nature 
of two parts of speech. . . 25 

Farts of verb, principal 

264, 289-294 

Passive participles 260, 261 

Passive voice, defined 207 

formation of 208, 263 

how to change to active .... 208 

with retained object 209 

of intransitive verbs 209 

with subjective complement 

following 210 

Past future tense 226, 248 

Past participle 260, 263, 264 

Past perfect tense, defined. . . .219 

formation of 229, 263 

uses of 230 

Past tense, defined 219 



306 



INDEX 



Past tense, formation of 221 

corrupt forms 221 

uses of 223 

emphatic form of 232 

progressive form of 233 

principal part of verb 264 

Person, of pronouns 135 

of verbs 213, 217 

of nouns 217 

order in compound subject.. 216 
Personal pronouns, defined. . . .134 

declension of. 135 

three persons of 135 

use of we, thou, ye, you. . 136, 137 

gender-forms 138 

use of gender-forms 139-142 

special uses of it 141-142 

use of case-forms 143-147 

compound. 147-148 

reflexive and intensive 149 

used indefinitely 167 

Personification 139, 140 

Phrasal gerunds 268 

Phrasal nouns 97-99 

Phrasal past participle. . . 260, 261 

Phrases, verb . 16 

denned 54 

punctuation of 55 

substantive 56, 57, 126 

adjectival 56, 59, 187 

adverbial 56, 61, 199 

uses of 56-61 

prepositional 278, 279 

Pleonasm 52-53 

Plural number, defined 104 

regular formation of 105 

irregular formation of. . .105-106 

of letters, figures, etc 106 

of proper nouns and titles . . 107 

of compound nouns 107 

of foreign nouns 108 



Plural number, same form in 

both numbers 109 

nouns always plural 110 

divided usage Ill 

nouns with two plurals 113 

of personal pronouns 136 

of interrogative pronouns . . . 152 

of relative pronouns 159 

of indefinite pronouns 166 

of verbs 211-213 

Position, of subject and verb.. 8, 9 

of prepositions 19, 278 

of adjectives 186 

of adverbs 196 

of conjunctions 284 

Positive degree 181 

Possessive adjectives 136, 136n, 178n^ 

Possessive case, defined 1 lo 

forms of 119-121 

of compound nouns and 

phrases 121 

uses of 122 

double possessive 123 

joint and separate possession. .124 
of pronouns. . 146,148,153,160,166 

Possessive modifier 43, 187 

Possessive pronoun 136n 

Predicate adjectives 186 

Predicate, defined 6 

compound 7, 8 

position of 8, 9 

complete 30 

Predicate infinitive 258, 259 

Predicate nominative 116 

Predicate noun of infinitive . . . 259 

Predicate verb, defined 30 

omission of 30 

Prepositional phrases 278 

Prepositions, defined 18, 19 

position of 19, 278 

substantives used with. .117, 277 



INDEX 



307 



Prepositions, omission of 279 

discriminated 279 

used as adverbs. 281 

parsing of 281 

compared with conjunctions. . 282 

Present participle 260 

Present perfect tense, denned. .219 

formation of 228, 263 

uses of 228 

Present tense, defined 218 

uses of 219 

as future tense 219 

as historical present 220 

emphatic form of 232 

progressive form of 233 

Principal clauses 74 

Principal parts of verbs 264, 289-294 

Principal verb 205 

Progressive tenses 233, 263 

Pronominal adjectives. ... 174, 178 

Pronouns, defined 12 

antecedent of 133 

compared with nouns 133 

compared with adjectives. . . 134 

personal. . 134-149 

possessive 136n 

demonstrative 150 

interrogative 151-155 

relative 156-164 

indefinite 165-167 

agreement with antecedent 

167, 168 

parsing of 171 

summary of 172 

used as interjections 288 

Proper nouns, defined 93 

plural of 107 

Punctuation, of sentences 2 

of appositives 45 

of independent elements . . . 49-52 
of clauses 78 



Punctuation, of relative clauses 158 

Questions, direct and indirect 

154, 155, 192, 245, 248 

Quite 187 

Raise, rise 203 

Reciprocal pronouns 165 

Reflexive pronouns 149 

Regular verbs 221 

Relations of adjectives 186 

Relative adjectives 178 

Relative adverbs 192, 285 

Relative clauses, denned 157 

adjectival 157 

substantive 157, 164 

essential and non-essential. . . 157 

restrictive 157, 158 

additive 157, 158 

descriptive 158n 

determinative 158n 

free 158n 

forward-moving 158n 

Relative pronouns, defined. . . . 156 

antecedent of 156 

relative clauses 157, 158 

inflection of 159 

uses of 159-161 

agreement with antecedent 

159, 167 

omission of 162 

as and but as 162 

compound 163 

Responsives 191 

Restrictive relative clauses 157,1 58n 

Retained object 209, 258 

Root infinitive 256 

Same 179 

Same as, same that 162 

Save, ere 280 

Secondary object 203, 257 



308 



INDEX 



Self 148 

Sentences, denned 1 

how marked . 2 

declarative, interrogative, 
imperative, and exclama- 
tory 3-5 

simple 80 

compound 80 

complex 81 

elliptical 83 

analysis of 83-89 

summary of 91 

Separate possession 124 

Set, sit ,..203 

Several 165, 178 

Shall and will, number of 212 

future auxiliaries. . .224, 244-246 
expressing volition . . 225, 244-246 

She, declined 136 

gender of 138 

uses of 140, 168 

Should and would, past future 

auxiliaries 226 

expressing volition 247 

other uses 247 

Sign of infinitive 254 

Simple adverb 1-93 

Simple sentences, denned 80 

analysis of 85 

Singular number, defined 104 

nouns usually singular 110 

divided usage Ill 

of verbs 211-213 

Sit, set 203 

Some. ... 165, 178 

Somebody, some one, something 

165, 168 

Strong verbs , 221 

Subject, denned 6 

omission of 6, 30 

compound 7 



Subject, complete 29 

of verb 213 

Subject of infinitive 257 

Subject substantive 29 

Subjective complement, denned 33 

verbs used after 34, 210 

introduced by as 116 

Subjunctive mood, denned .... 235 

forms of 236-238 

uses of 239 

tenses of 242 

in conditional sentences 252, 253 

Subordinate clauses 75, 192 

Subordinating conjunctions 75, 283 
Substantives, nouns or pro- 
nouns as 12, 126 

phrases as 56, 57 

clauses as . . 66, 67, 157, 164, 192 

adverbs as 126 

adjectives as 180, 187 

Such 165, 178 

Summary, of sentence 91 

of nouns 132 

of pronouns 172 

of adjectives 190 

of adverbs 201 

of verbs 275 

Superlative degree 181 

Teach, with secondary object. .203 

Tense, denned 218 

present 218, 219 

past 219, 221-223 

future 219, 224 

past future 226 

present perfect 228 

past perfect 229 

future perfect 231 

emphatic forms of 232 

progressive forms of 233 

That, demonstrative 150, 178 



INDEX 



309 



That, relative 

156, 158n, 160, 160n, 162 

The, definite article 175-177 

adverb 177 

Their, case of 136 

possessive adjective 136n 

use of 146 

Theirs, case of 136 

possessive pronoun 136n 

use of 146 

Them, case of 136 

use of 144 

Themselves 147 

There, expletive 9, 196 

These 150, 178 

They, declined 136 

use of 144, 167 

Thine, ease of 135 

possessive pronoun 136n 

use of 137, 147 

This 150, 178 

Those 150, 178 

Thou, declined 135 

uses of 137 

Thy, case of 135 

possessive adjective. . .136, 136n 

use of 146 

Thyself 148 

Titles of books, etc 97-99, 213 

To, sign of infinitive 25, 254 

Transitive verbs 202 

Units of sentence 10 

Us, case of 135 

use of 144 



Verbals, parsing of 273 

Verbs, defined 15 

complete 32, 204 

linking ' 34, 204 

transitive 202 

intransitive 202 

auxiliary 205 

notional 205 

principal 205 

inflection of 206 

compound, or phrasal, varia- 
tions 206 

voice of 207-210 

person and number of... 21 1-217 

agreement with subject 213 

tenses of 218-233 

mood of 234-251, 252-254 

modal verb-phrases 243-253 

principal parts of.. 264, 289-294 

conjugation of 270, 294-298 

parsing of 273 

summary of 275 

used as interjections 288 

Verb-phrases, defined 16 

variation of verb 206 

future tense 224-226 

perfect tense 228-231 

emphatic 232 

progressive 233 

modal 243-253 

Very 179 

Voice, defined 207 

active 207 

passive 208-210 

Volition 225, 226, 239 



Verbal nouns 270 

Verbals, described 25 

infinitives 25, 254-259 

participles 25, 26, 260-267 

gerunds 26, 267-270 



Was, were in conditions 240 

Wasn't, weren't 214 

We, declined 135 

uses of 136, 144 

editorial and regal use of. . .137 



310 



INDEX 



We, indefinite use of 167 

Weak verbs 221 

Were 236, 240 

Wert 236 

What, interrogative. . .151-155, 178 

relative 156, 159 

Whatever, whatsoever 163, 178 

Which, interrogative. .151-155, 178 

relative 156, 159, 162, 178 

Whichever, whichsoever ... .163, 178 
Who, interrogative 151-155 

relative.. 156, 159-161, 158n, 162 

Whoever, whosoever, whoso 163 

Whom, interrogative 152, 155 

relative 156, 159 

Whomever 164 

Whose, interrogative 151 

relative 156, 159 

Whosever 164 

Will or shall. . . .212, 224, 243-246 



With, along with, etc 216 

Without 285 

Would or should 226, 247-249 

Would rather, etc 240 

Ye 137 

Yes, responsive 191 

Yon, yonder 178 

You, declined 135 

use of 137, 167 

number of verb with 213 

Your, case of 135 

possessive adjective 136,136n,146 

number of 137 

use of 146 

Yours, case of 135 

possessive pronoun 136n 

number of 137 

use of 146 

Yourself, yourselves 148 



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